CHAPTER 5

Characteristics and Performance

of Transmission Lines
Classification of Overhead Transmission Lines

• A transmission line has three constants R, L and C distributed

uniformly along the whole length of the line.
• The resistance and inductance form the series impedance.
• The capacitance existing between conductors for 1-phase line
or from a conductor to neutral for a 3-phase line forms a shunt
path throughout the length of the line.
• Therefore, capacitance effects introduce complications in
transmission line calculations. Depending upon the manner in
which capacitance is taken into account, the overhead
transmission lines are classified as :
 Cont’d
(i) Short transmission lines.
• When the length of an overhead transmission line is up to
about 50 km and the line voltage is comparatively low (< 20
kV), it is usually considered as a short transmission line. Due
to smaller length and lower voltage, the capacitance effects
are small and hence can be neglected. Therefore, while
studying the performance of a short transmission line, only
resistance and inductance of the line are taken into account.
(ii) Medium transmission lines.
• When the length of an overhead transmission line is about 50
- 150 km and the line voltage is moderately high (>20 kV and <
100 kV), it is considered as a medium transmission line. Due
to sufficient length and voltage of the line, the capacitance
effects are taken into account.
 Cont’d
• For purposes of calculations, the distributed capacitance of
the line is divided and lumped in the form of condensers
shunted across the line at one or more points.
(iii) Long transmission lines.
• When the length of an overhead transmission line is more
than 150 km and line voltage is very high (> 100 kV), it is
considered as a long transmission line. For the treatment of
such a line, the line constants are considered uniformly
distributed over the whole length of the line and rigorous
methods are employed for solution.
 Important Terms
• While studying the performance of a transmission line, it is
desirable to determine its voltage regulation and transmission
efficiency. We shall explain these two terms in turn.
(i) Voltage regulation.
• When a transmission line is carrying current, there is a voltage
drop in the line due to resistance and inductance of the line.
The result is that receiving end voltage (VR) of the line is
generally less than the sending end voltage (VS). This voltage
drop (VS − VR) in the line is expressed as a percentage of
receiving end voltage VR and is called voltage regulation.
 Cont’d
• The difference in voltage at the receiving end of a
transmission line between conditions of no load and full load
is called voltage regulation and is expressed as a percentage
of the receiving end voltage.
• At no load, there is no drop in the line so that at no load, VR =
Vs. However, at full load, there is a voltage drop in the line so
that receiving end voltage is VR.
∴ Difference in voltage at receiving end between no load and
full load
= VS − VR
• Mathematically,

• Obviously, it is desirable that the voltage regulation of a transmission line

should be low i.e., the increase in load current should make very little
difference in the receiving end voltage.
(ii) Transmission efficiency.
• The power obtained at the receiving end of a transmission line is
generally less than the sending end power due to losses in the line resistance.
• The ratio of receiving end power to the sending end power of a transmission
line is known as the
transmission efficiency of the line i.e.

where VR, IR and cos φR are the receiving end voltage, current and power factor
while VS, IS and cos φS are the corresponding values at the sending end.
 Performance of Single Phase Short
Transmission Lines
• As stated earlier, the effects of line capacitance are neglected for a short
transmission line. Therefore, while studying the performance of such a line,
only resistance and inductance of the line are taken into account. The
equivalent circuit of a single phase short transmission line is shown in Fig. 5.1
(i). Here, the total line resistance and inductance are shown as concentrated or
lumped instead of being distributed. The circuit is a simple a.c. series circuit.
Let I = load current
R = loop resistance i.e., resistance of both conductors
XL = loop reactance
VR = receiving end voltage
cos φR = receiving end power factor (lagging)
VS = sending end voltage
cos φS = sending end power factor
 Cont’d

Figure 5.1
The phasor diagram of the line for lagging load power
factor is shown in Fig. 5.1 (ii). From the right angled
triangle ODC, we get,
 Medium Transmission Lines
• In short transmission line calculations, the effects of the line capacitance are
neglected because such lines have smaller lengths and transmit power at relatively
low voltages (< 20 kV). However, as the length and voltage of the line increase, the
capacitance gradually becomes of greater importance. Since medium transmission
lines have sufficient length (50-150 km) and usually operate at voltages greater
than 20 kV, the effects of capacitance cannot be neglected. Therefore, in order to
obtain reasonable accuracy in medium transmission line calculations, the line
capacitance must be taken into consideration.
The capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line.
However, in order to make the calculations simple, the line capacitance is assumed
to be lumped or concentrated in the form of capacitors shunted across the line at
one or more points. Such a treatment of localizing the line capacitance gives
reasonably accurate results. The most commonly used methods (known as
localized capacitance methods) for the solution of medium transmissions lines are :
(i) End condenser method (ii) Nominal T method (iii) Nominal π method.
Although the above methods are used for obtaining the performance calculations
of medium lines, they can also be used for short lines if their line capacitance is
given in a particular problem.
 End Condenser Method
Cont’d
• In this method, the capacitance of
the line is lumped or concentrated at
the receiving or load end as shown in
Fig. 5.2 This method of localizing the
line capacitance at the load end
overestimates the effects of
capacitance.
• In Fig. 5.2, one phase of the 3-phase
transmission line is shown as it is
more convenient to work in phase
instead of line-to-line values.
Let IR = load current per phase
R = resistance per phase
XL = inductive reactance per phase
C = capacitance per phase
Figure 5.2
cos φR = receiving end power factor
(lagging)
VS = sending end voltage per phase
 Cont..
• The *phasor diagram for the
circuit is shown in Fig 5.3.
• Taking the receiving end voltage
VR as the reference phasor,
• we have, VR = VR + j 0
• Load current, IR = IR (cos φR − j
sin φR)
• Capacitive current, IC = j VR ω C
= j 2 π f C VR
• The sending end current IS is the
phasor sum of load current
• IR and capacitive current IC i.e.,
Figure 5.3
 Cont..
• IS = IR + IC
• = IR (cos φR − j sin φR) + j 2 π f C VR
• = IR cos φR + j (−IR sin φR + 2 π f CVR)
• Voltage drop/phase = IS Z =IS (R + j XL)
• Sending end voltage, VS = VR +IS Z =VR+ IS (R + j XL)
• Thus, the magnitude of sending end voltage VS can be
calculated.
 Nominal T Method
• In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be
concentrated at the middle point of the line and half the line
resistance and reactance are lumped on its either side as
shown in Fig. 5.4. Therefore, in this arrangement, full charging
current flows over half the line. In Fig. 5.4, one phase of 3-
phase transmission line is shown as it is advantageous to work
in phase instead of line-to-line values.

Figure 5.4
 Cont..
• The phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig. 5.5. Taking
the receiving end voltage VR as the reference phasor, we
have, Receiving end voltage, VR = VR + j 0
• Load current, IR = IR (cos φ R − j sin φ R)

Figure 5.5
 Nominal π Method
• In this method, capacitance of each conductor (i.e., line to
neutral) is divided into two halves; one half being lumped at
the sending end and the other half at the receiving end as
shown in Fig. 5.6. It is obvious that capacitance at the sending
end has no effect on the line drop. However, its charging
current must be added to line current in order to obtain the
total sending end current.

Figure 5.6
 Cont..
• The phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig. 5.7. Taking
the receiving end voltage as the reference phasor, we have,

Figure 5.7
 Long Transmission Lines
• It is well known that line constants of the transmission line are
uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line.
However, reasonable accuracy can be obtained in line
calculations for short and medium lines by considering these
constants as lumped. If such an assumption of lumped
constants is applied to long transmission lines (having length
excess of about 150 km), it is found that serious errors are
introduced in the performance calculations. Therefore, in
order to obtain fair degree of accuracy in the performance
calculations of long lines, the line constants are considered as
uniformly distributed throughout the length of the line.
Rigorous mathematical treatment is required for the solution
of such lines.
•• Fig.  5.8 shows the equivalent circuit of a 3-phase long transmission line on a phase-
neutral
• basis. The whole line length is divided into n sections, each section having line
constants 1n
th of those for the whole line. The following points may by noted :
• (i) The line constants are uniformly distributed over the entire length of line as is
actually the
case.
• (ii) The resistance and inductive reactance are the series elements.
• (iii) The leakage susceptance (B) and leakage conductance (G) are shunt elements.
• The leakage susceptance is due to the fact that capacitance exists between line and
neutral. The leakage conductance takes into account the energy losses occurring
through leakage over the insulators or due to corona effect between conductors.
Admittance =
• Analysis of Long Transmission Line (Rigorous
method)
Generalised Circuit Constants of a
Transmission Line
Cont’d
 Cont’d
• As stated previously, the sending end voltage (VS) and sending
end current (IS) of a transmission line can be expressed as :

We shall now determine the values of these constants for

different types of transmission lines.
(i) Short lines.
In short transmission lines, the effect of line capacitance is
neglected. Therefore,
the line is considered to have series impedance. Fig. 5.1
shows the circuit of a 3-phase transmission line on a single
phase basis.
 Cont’d
(ii) Medium lines – Nominal T method. In this
method,
• the whole line to neutral capacitance is assumed to be
concentrated at the middle point of the line and half the line
resistance and reactance are lumped on either side
Cont’d
 Cont’d
(iii) Medium lines—Nominal π method.
In this method, line-to-neutral capacitance is divided into two
halves ; one half being concentrated at the load end and the
other half at the sending end
Cont’d
 Cont’d
(iv) Long lines—Rigorous method.
By rigorous method, the sending end voltage and current of a
long transmission line are given by :