COMPUTER SCIENCE (9618)

17.02 PROTOCOLS

Prepared by
Rakesh kumar chaudhari
Rato Bangala School
PROTOCOL
 Protocol: Pre-agreed signals, codes and rules to be used
for data and information exchange between systems
 In order for two computers on a network to communicate
successfully, they must share a common set of rules
about how to communicate.
PROTOCOL (CONTD.)
Such rules must include:
 How to interpret signals,

 How to identify ‘oneself’ and other computers in a

network
 How to initiate and end networked communications

 How to manage information exchange across the

network medium
PROTOCOL SUITE
17.03 A PROTOCOL STACK
 Aspects
 Each layer can only accept input from the next higher or the
next lower layer.
 There is a defined interface between adjacent layers which
constitutes the only interaction allowed between layers.
 A layer is services by the actions of lower layers.
 With the possible exception of the lowest layer the
functioning of a layer is created by installed software.
 A layer may comprise of sub-layers.
 Any user interaction will take place using protocols
associated with the highest level layer in the stack.
 Any direct access to hardware is controlled to the lowest
layer in the stack.
PROTOCOL STACK
PROTOCOL STACK
 The protocol stack is an implementation of a computer
networking protocol suite. The terms are often used
interchangeably.
 Strictly speaking, the suite is the definition of the
protocols, and the stack is the software implementation
of them.
 Individual protocols within a suite are often designed
with a single purpose in mind.
 This modularization makes design and evaluation easier.
Because each protocol module usually communicates
with two others, they are commonly imagined as layers
in a stack of protocols.
 The lowest protocol always deals with "low-level",
physical interaction of the hardware. Every higher layer
adds more features. User applications usually deal only
with the topmost layers.
 In practical implementation, protocol stacks are often
divided into three major sections: media, transport, and
applications.
 A particular operating system or platform will often have
two well-defined software interfaces: one between the
media and transport layers, and one between the transport
layers and applications.
 The media-to-transport interface defines how transport
protocol software makes use of particular media and
hardware types ("card drivers"). For example, this interface
level would define how TCP/IP transport software would
talk to Ethernet hardware.
 The application-to-transport interface defines how
application programs make use of the transport layers. For
example, this interface level would define how a web
browser program would talk to TCP/IP transport software.
PROTOCOL – LAYERS
 Application Layer: provides application access to the
communication environment. The application sends a
continuous data streams.
 Transport Layer: divides the data passed to it from the
application layer into packets for the network layer to
send. It acknowledges received packets, set timeouts to
make sure the source acknowledges packets that are sent,
retransmitting packets if necessary. TCP is a reliable,
connection-oriented protocol that provides error
checking and flow control.
PROTOCOL - LAYERS
 IP is a network layer protocol that provides source and
destination addressing (IP addressing), sequencing and
routing in the TCP/IP suite. IP is a connectionless
datagram protocol that, like all connectionless protocols,
is fast but unreliable. IP assumes that other protocols
used by the computer ensure reliable delivery of data.
PROTOCOL - LAYER
 Data Link Layer: handles the physical details of
interfacing with the cable. It handles data flow control. It
can support Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, RS232 etc.
TCP/IP SUITE
 TCP/IP suite comprises a number of protocols:
 Application Layer: HTTP, SMTP,DNS, FTP, POP3

 Transport Layer: TCP, UDP, SCTP

 Network Layer: IP, IGMP, ICMP, ARP

 The TCP/IP protocol suite only operates at the top three
layers.
 The lower layers operate with a different protocol suite,
such as Ethernet.
 A router has no awareness of the two highest layers.
TCP (TRANSMISSION CONTROL
PROTOCOL)
 If an application is running on an end-system where a
'message' is to be sent to a different end-system the application
will be controlled by an application layer protocol.
 The protocol will transmit the user data to the transport layer.
The TCP protocol operating in the transport layer now has to
take responsibility for ensuring the safe delivery of the
'message' to the receiver.
 To do this it creates sufficient packets to hold all of the data.
Each packet consists of a header plus the user data.
TCP (CONTD.)
 As well as needing to ensure safe delivery, TCP also has to
ensure that any response is directed back to the application
protocol.
 Thus one item in the header is the port number which identifies
the application layer protocol . For example, for HTTP the port
number is 80. The packet must also include the port number for
the application layer protocol at the receiving end-system.
 However, TCP is not concerned with the address of the receiving
end system.
TCP (CONTD.)
 If the packet is one of a sequence, a sequence number is
included to ensure eventual correct reassembly of the user
data .
 The TCP protocol is connection -oriented. As described in
Section 17.02, initially just one packet of a sequence is sent to
the network layer. Once the connection has been established,
 TCP sends the other packets and receives response packets
containing acknowledgements.
 This allows missing packets to be identified and re-sent.
INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)
 The function of the network layer, and in particular of
the IP protocol, is to ensure correct routing over the
Internet.
 To do this it takes the packet received from the transport
layer and adds a further header. This header contains the
IP addresses of both the sender and the receiver.
 To find the IP address of the receiver, it is very likely to
use the DNS system to find the address corresponding to
the URL supplied in the user data.
IP (CONTD.)
 The IP packet, which is usually called a 'datagram', is
sent to the data -link layer and therefore to a different
protocol suite.
 The data-link layer assembles datagrams into 'frames'. At
this stage, transmission can begin.
 Once the IP packet has been sent to the data -link layer,
IP has no further duty. IP functions as a connectionless
service. If IP receives a packet which contains an
acknowledgement of a previously sent packet, it will
simply pass the packet on to TCP with no awareness of
the content.
HTTP
 most important application-layer protocol.
 Every time a user accesses a website using a browser,
HTTP is used but its functionality is hidden from view.
 Transaction-oriented, client-server protocol

 The transaction involves the client sending a 'request'

message and the server sending back a 'response'
message.
 HTTP protocol defines the format of the message.
 The first line of a request message is the 'request line'.
Optionally this can be followed by header lines. All of this uses
ASCII coding. The format of the request line is:
<Method> <URL> <Version >CRLF
 where CR and LF are the ASCII carriage return and line feed
characters. The request line usually has GET as the method.
 However, there are several alternatives to the GET
method which makes HTTP potentially a more widely
applicable protocol than just being used for webpage
access.
 The version has to be specified because HTTP has
evolved so there is more than one version in use.
HTTP
Sequence of protocol actions
1. HTTP transmits a request message to TCP.
2. TCP creates one or more packets and sends the first
one to IP using port 80 for the destination port and a
temporary port number for the sending port.
3. IP uses the URL in the message to get an IP address
using DNS and sends a datagram.
4. At the server, IP forwards the datagram to TCP.
5. The server TCP sends an acknowledgement.
6. When a connection has been established, TCP sends the
remaining packets, if any, to IP which then forwards them
through the server IP and TCP to the server application layer.
7. HTTP transmits a response message which is transmitted via
TCP, IP, IP and TCP to the client browser application.
EMAIL PROTOCOLS
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a 'push'
protocol.
 POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) is a 'pull' protocol.

 There is a more recent alternative to POP3, which is

IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol). IMAP offers
the same facilities as POP3 but also a lot more.
 This approach has been largely superseded by the use of
web-based mail.
 A browser is used to access the email application, so
HTTP is now the protocol used.
 However, SMTP remains in use for transfer between the
mail servers.
FTP (FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL)
 For routine transfers of files from one user to another the most
likely method is to attach the file to an email.
 However, this is not always a suitable method.

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is the application-layer protocol

that can handle any file transfer between two end-systems.
 File transfer can be less than straightforward if the end-systems
have different operating systems with different file systems.
 FTP handles this by separating the control process from the
data-transfer process.
ETHERNET PROTOCOL

 Ethernet is the other dominant protocol in the modern

networked world.
 It is primarily focused on LANs.

 Ethernet was first devised in the 1970s

 The standard for a wired network is denoted as IEEE 802.3

which can be considered to be a synonym for Ethernet.
 The standard has evolved through five generations: standard or
traditional, fast, gigabit, 10 gigabit and 100 gigabit.
 The gigabit part of the name indicates the transfer speed
capability.
 Ethernet transmits data in frames. Each frame contains a source
address and a destination address.
 The address is the physical or MAC address.

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