CHAPTER - 6

TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND
ADVANCED COMMUNICATIONS

TOPICS 4 - TRANSMISSION LINES

TOPICS 5 - CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
TOPICS 6 - RETURN LOSS

Surendra K. Karmacharya
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 SYLLABUS
S. No. Topics S. No. Topics
1 Evolution of telecommunications, 13 Packet, Message and circuit switching,
2 Telecommunication network, 14 X.25 Protocol, Frame relay,
3 Transmission media, 15 TCP/IP Protocol, OSI layers,
4 Transmission lines, 16 Telephony, Functions of switching
5 characteristic impedance, 17 electromechanical switches, Stored
Programmed Controlled switch,
TS/ST/TST/STS switching, No 5 and No 7
6 Return loss, 18
signaling,
7 transformer and hybrid circuit, 19 ISDN, BISDN, ATM, PDH/SDH, DSL

Numbering, Routing and charging plans.

8 signal and noise measurements, 20 Introduction to IN(Intelligent Network), .

9 echo & singing, 21 Real time protocol, Voice over IP, IP/PSTN
Platform,

10 space/time/frequency/wave length 22 UMTS, IMT-2000, NGN (Next Generation

division multiplexing, Network), MPLS,
basics of GIS (Geographical Information
11 Erlang B formula, Queuing theorem, 23
System)
2
Data communication and computer
12 24 Radar system, Navigational systems,
networking basics,
4 - TRANSMISSION LINES
 In an electronic system, the delivery of power
requires the connection of two wires between
the source and the load. At low frequencies,
power is considered to be delivered to the load
through the wire.
 In the microwave frequency region, power
is considered to be in electric and magnetic
fields that are guided from place to place by
some physical structure. Any physical structure
that will guide an electromagnetic wave place 3
to place is called a Transmission Line.
 Transmission lines in communication carry
telephone signals, computer data in LANs, TV
signals in cable TV systems, and signals from a
transmitter to an antenna or from an antenna to a
receiver.
 Transmission lines are also circuits.
 Their electrical characteristics are critical and
must be matched to the equipment for successful
communication to take place.
The two primary requirements of a transmission
line are:
1. The line should introduce minimum attenuation
to the signal.
2. The line should not radiate any of the signal as
radio energy.
Types of Transmission Lines

 Parallel-wire line is made of two parallel

conductors separated by a space of ½ inch to
several inches.
 The most widely used type of transmission line is
the coaxial cable. It consists of a solid center
conductor surrounded by a dielectric material,
usually a plastic insulator such as Teflon.
 Twisted-pair cable uses two insulated solid copper
wires covered with insulation and loosely twisted
together.
Figure : Common types of transmission lines. (a) Open-wire line. (b) Open-wire line
called twin lead. (c) Coaxial cable (d) Twisted-pair cable.
Balanced Versus Unbalanced Lines
Transmission lines can be balanced or
unbalanced.
A balanced line is one in which neither wire is
connected to ground.
The signal on each wire is referenced to ground.
In an unbalanced line, one conductor is
connected to ground.
Open-wire line has a balanced configuration.
Figure : (a) Balanced line. (b) Unbalanced line
Figure : Coaxial Cable

Figure : Twisted Pair

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5- Characteristic Impedance
When the length of transmission line is longer
than several wavelengths at the signal frequency,
the two parallel conductors of the transmission
line appear as a complex impedance.
An RF generator connected to a considerable
length of transmission line sees an impedance
that is a function of the inductance, resistance,
and capacitance in the circuit—the
characteristic or surge impedance (Z0).
The characteristic impedance of a transmission
line, Zo is the impedance measured at the input
of this line when its length is infinite.
Figure : A transmission line appears as a distributed
low-pass filter to any driving generator.
(a) A distributed line with lumped components
(b) Simplified equivalent circuit

.
At radio frequencies, the inductive reactance (L) >>
Resistance (R). The capacitive susceptance is also >> the
shunt Conductance (G).
Thus both R and G may be ignored
The quantities L, R, C and G shown in figure above are all
measured per unit length (eg. per meter), because they
occur continuously along the line.
They are thus distributed throughout the length of the line.
Under no circumstances can they be assumed to be
lumped at any one point.
The characteristic impedance or surge impedance (usually
written Z0) of a uniform transmission line is the ratio of the
amplitudes of voltage and current of a single wave
propagating along the line; that is, a wave travelling in one
13
direction in the absence of reflections in the other direction.
Characteristic Impedance ..

Where Z is series impedance per section, R + jL (Ω/m)

and is the series impedance per unit length
And Y is the shunt admittance per section, G + jC (S/m)
and is the shunt admittance per unit length
Thus,

At radio frequencies, the resistive components of the

equivalent circuits become insignificant, and the the
expression for Zo is reduces to
 The characteristic impedance of a transmission line, Zo is
the impedance measured at the input of this line, when its
length is infinite.
Under these conditions, the type of termination at the far
end has no effect and consequently is not mentioned in the
definition.
The characteristic impedance is resistive at radio
frequencies.
Characteristic impedance is determined by the geometry,
size and spacing of the conductors, and by the dielectric
constant of the insulator separating them.
The usual range of characteristic impedance for balanced
lines is 120 to 600 ohm, and 40 to 150 ohm for coaxial
lines.
It is impossible for parallel wire lines to make Zo less than15
83 ohm.
 D

d
s

For coaxial Line,

Where ‘k’ is the dielectric constant of the insulation

For parallel Two - wire line,

Figure : A transmission line whose load is resistive
and equal to the surge impedance appears as an equal
resistance to the generator.

L
Zo 
C
Velocity Factor
 The speed of the signal in the transmission line is slower
than the speed of a signal in free space.
 The velocity of propagation of a signal in a cable is less
than the velocity of propagation of light in free space by a
fraction called the velocity factor (VF).
VF = vp/vc
where vp is the velocity in the transmission line and vc the
velocity in free space
The velocity of light in a medium is given by
Where, vp = velocity in the medium
vc = velocity of light in a vacuum
k = dielectric constant of the medium
Velocity Factor contd..
 The velocity factor of a dielectric substance, and thus of a
cable, is the velocity reduction ratio and is given by,

The dielectric constant of materials commonly used in

transmission lines ranges from 1.2 to 2.8, giving
corresponding velocity factor from 0.9 to 0.6.
 Since v= f., and f is constant, the wavelength  is also
reduced by a ratio equal to the VF.
Time Delay
 Because the velocity of propagation of a
transmission line is less than the velocity of
propagation in free space, any line will slow down
or delay any signal applied to it.
 A signal applied at one end of a line appears some
time later at the other end of the line.
 This is called the time delay or transit time.
 A transmission line used specifically for the
purpose of achieving delay is called a delay line.
Figure : The effect of the time delay of a transmission line on signals. (a)
Sine wave delay causes a lagging phase shift. (b) Pulse delay
Transmission-Line Specifications
 Attenuation is directly proportional to cable length
and increases with frequency.
 A transmission line is a low-pass filter whose cutoff
frequency depends on distributed inductance and
capacitance along the line and on length.
 It is important to use larger, low-loss cables for
longer runs despite cost and handling
inconvenience.
 A gain antenna can be used to offset cable loss.
 Standing Waves
 If the load on the line is an antenna, the
signal is converted into electromagnetic
energy and radiated into space.
 If a resistive load equal to the characteristic
impedance of a line is connected at the end
of the line, the signal is absorbed by the load
and power is dissipated as heat.
 If the load at the end of the line is an open or
a short circuit or has an impedance other
than the characteristic impedance of the line,
the signal is not fully absorbed by the load.
Matched Lines
A matched transmission line is one terminated
in a load that has a resistive impedance equal to
the characteristic impedance of the line.
Alternating voltage (or current) at any point on a
matched line is a constant value. A correctly
terminated transmission line is said to be flat.
The power sent down the line toward the load is
called forward or incident power.
Power not absorbed by the load is called
reflected power.
Figure: A transmission line must be terminated in its
characteristic impedance for proper operation
 When a line is not terminated properly,
some of the energy is reflected and
moves back up the line, toward the
generator.
 This reflected voltage adds to the forward
or incident generator voltage and forms a
composite voltage that is distributed along
the line.
 The pattern of voltage and its related
current forms a standing wave.
 Standing waves are not desirable.
 Standing waves on a shorted transmission line

Standing waves on a open-circuit transmission line

Transmission line with mismatched load and the resulting
standing waves
Calculating the Standing Wave Ratio
The magnitude of the standing waves on a
transmission line is determined by the ratio of the
maximum current to the minimum current, or the
ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum
voltage, along the line.
These ratios are referred to as the standing
wave ratio (SWR).

Imax Vmax
SWR = =
Imin Vmin
Reflection Coefficient ()
 The reflection coefficient measures the amplitude of the
reflected wave versus the amplitude of the incident wave.
The expression for calculating the reflection coefficient is
as follows:

 where ZL is the load impedance and ZS is the source

impedance.
Vmax  Vmin SWR  1
 
Vmax  Vmin SWR  1

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VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO
VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio), is a measure
of how efficiently radio-frequency power is transmitted
from a power source, through a transmission line, into
a load (for example, from a power amplifier through a
transmission line, to an antenna).
VSWR measures voltage variances. It is the ratio of
the highest voltage anywhere along the transmission
line to the lowest. Since the voltage doesn't vary in an
ideal system, its VSWR is 1.0 (or, as commonly
expressed, 1:1). When reflections occur, the voltages
vary and VSWR is higher -- 1.2 (or 1.2:1), for
instance.
1 
VSWR 
1 
An RG-11/U foam coaxial cable has a maximum voltage
standing wave of 52 V and a minimum voltage of 17 V. Find
(a) the SWR, (b) the reflection coefficient

a. SWR = Vmax / Vmin = 52 / 17 = 3.05

b. Γ = (Vmax – Vmin) / (Vmax + Vmin) = (52 -17) / (52 + 17) = 0.51

 Return Loss
In telecommunications, return loss is the loss of
power in the signal returned/reflected by a
discontinuity in a transmission line or optical fiber. This
discontinuity can be a mismatch with the terminating
load or with a device inserted in the line. It is usually
expressed as a ratio in decibels (dB).
Return loss is related to both standing wave ratio
 (SWR) and reflection coefficient (Γ).
 
Increasing return loss corresponds to lower SWR.
Return loss is a measure of how well devices or lines
are matched.
A match is good if the return loss is high. A high return
loss is desirable
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 Return Loss

The ratio of the reflected power from a load, to the

incident power on that load, is known as return loss.
Typically, return loss is expressed in dB:
Mathematically return loss is given by,

The return
  loss thus tells us the percentage of the
incident power reflected by load (expressed in decibels!).
For example, if the return loss is 10dB, then 10% of the
incident power is reflected at the load, with the remaining
90% being absorbed by the load—we “lose” 10% of the
incident power 34
If the return loss is 30dB, then 0.1 % of the incident
power is reflected at the load, with the remaining
99.9% being absorbed by the load—we “lose” 0.1% of
the incident power.

Thus, a larger numeric value for return loss actually

indicates less lost power! An ideal return loss would
be  dB

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