MANUFACTURING PROCESSES-I

UNIT-1
CASTING PROCESSES
 TYPES OF MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES

M a n u fac tu rin g
P ro cesses

Sheet P o ly m er
D e fo rm a tio n C a sting M e tal P ro cesses M a c h in ing F in ish in g A s s e m b ly

E x tru s io n C e n trif u g a l B e n d in g B lo w m o ld ing B o rin g A n o d iz ing A u tom a ted

F o rg ing D ie ca s tin g B la n k in g C a s tin g D r i l li n g H o n in g B o n d in g
R o llin g In v e stm e n t D raw in g C o m p r e s s io n m o l d i n g F a c in g P a in tin g B ra z in g
B a r d ra w in g P e r m a n e n t m o ld P u n c h in g E x tru s io n G rin d ing P la tin g M an u al
W ire d raw in g S a n d c a stin g S h e a rin g I n j e c ti o n M o l d i n g M i ll i n g P o lish in g R iv e tin g
S p in n in g T h e rm o fo rm ing P la n in g S o ld e rin g
T ra n sfe r m o ld in g T u rn in g W e ld in g
S a w ing
ECM ,EDM
CASTING SINCE ABOUT 4000 BC…

Ancient Greece; bronze

statue casting circa 450BC
Iron works in early Europe,
e.g. cast iron cannons from
England circa 1543
CASTING PROPERTIES
 Foundry is a process of producing metal castings.
 Casting is an operation of shaping metal by pouring it in the
liquid state into a mold followed by solidification.

 Casting is a process in which molten metal flows into a mold

where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity. The part
produced is also called casting.

 In some cases casting is the only method of shaping a metal or

alloy: when the alloy is not malleable and therefore it’s plastic
deformation is not possible or when a large detail of complex
shape is to be produced.
Advantages Applications
 Complex shapes  Big parts:

 Net-shape ability  engine blocks and heads for

 Very large parts automotive vehicles,
 wood burning stoves,
 Variety of metals
 machine frames,
 Mass production
 railway wheels, pipes, church
bells,
Disadvantages  big statues, and pump housings
 Poor accuracy
 Small parts:
 Poor surface
 dental crowns,
 Internal defects
 jewelry,
 Mechanical properties
 small statues, and
 Environmental impact
 frying pans
 Cameras
 SAND CASTING

 Sand casting, the most widely used casting process, utilizes

expendable sand molds to form complex metal parts that can be
made of nearly any alloy.
 - has a low production rate.

 The sand casting process involves the use of a furnace, metal,

pattern, and sand mold.
 Steps in Sand Casting
1

5 3
4

10

6 7 8 9
Steps in Sand Casting
Steps in Sand Casting
WHAT IS BASIC REQUIREMENT FOR SAND CASTING PROCESS…?

 1. Pattern.

 2. Core

 3. Gating system

 4. Sand casting

 5. Mold
I. PATTERN
 I. PATTERN
Itis the replica of the final object to be made.
Pattern is the solid form that is used to make mold cavity.

The quality of the castings produced depends on the design of the pattern, its
material and construction.
 One major requirement is that patterns (and therefore the mold cavity) must
be oversized
 (i) to account for shrinkage in cooling and solidification, and

 (ii) to provide enough metal for the subsequence machining operation(s).

SOLIDIFICATION AND COOLING
SHRINKAGE
FACTORS EFFECTING SELECTION OF PATTERN MATERIAL

1. Number of castings to be produced.

Metal pattern----- large in number.
2. Type of mold material used.
3. Kind of molding process.
4. Method of molding (hand or machine).
5. Degree of dimensional accuracy and surface finish
required.
6. Minimum thickness required.
7. Shape, complexity and size of casting.
8. Cost of pattern and chances of repeat orders of the pattern
COMMON PATTERN MATERIALS

 The common materials used for making patterns are wood, metal, plastic, plaster,
wax or mercury.

Pattern properties are

 Easily worked, shaped and joined
 Light in weight
 Strong, hard, durable etc
 Resistance to wear and abrasion, chemical reaction
 Dimensionally stable
 Available at low cast

Pattern Materials
 Wood-pine (softwood),
or mahogany (hardwood),
 Metals and alloys
 Plaster of Paris
 Plastic and rubber
 Wax and resins
1. WOOD- SHISHAM, KAIL, DEODAR, TEAK AND
MAHOGANY.
Advantages of wooden patterns
1 Wood can be easily worked.
2 It is light in weight.
3 It is easily available.
4 It is very cheap.
5 It is easy to join.
6 It is easy to obtain good surface finish.
7 Wooden laminated patterns are strong.
8 It can be easily repaired.

Disadvantages
1 It is susceptible to moisture.
2 It tends to warp.
3 It wears out quickly due to sand abrasion.
4 It is weaker than metallic patterns.
2. METAL- CAST IRON, BRASS AND BRONZES AND
ALUMINUM ALLOYS.

 i). Cast Iron

Advantages
 1. It is cheap
 2. It is easy to file and fit
 3. It is strong
 4. It has good resistance against sand abrasion
 5. Good surface finish

Disadvantages
 1 It is heavy
 2 It is brittle and hence it can be easily broken
 3 It may rust
ii). Brasses and Bronzes
Advantages
 1. Better surface finish than cast iron.
 2. Very thin sections can be easily casted.

Disadvantages
 1. It is costly
 2. It is heavier than cast iron.

iii). Aluminum Alloys

Advantages
 1. Aluminum alloys pattern does not rust.
 2. They are easy to cast.
 3. They are light in weight.
 4. They can be easily machined.

Disadvantages
 1. They can be damaged by sharp edges.
 2. They are softer than brass and cast iron.
 3. Their storing and transportation needs proper care.
 Iv). White Metal (Alloy of Antimony, Copper and
Lead)
 Advantages
 1. It is best material for lining and stripping plates.
 2. It has low melting point around 260°C
 3. It can be cast into narrow cavities.
 Disadvantages
 1. It is too soft.
 2. Its storing and transportation needs proper care
 3. It wears away by sand or sharp edges.
3. Plastic
 Advantages
 lighter,stronger, moisture and wear resistant, non sticky to molding
sand, durable and they are not affected by the moisture of the
molding sand.
 Moreover they impart very smooth surface finish on the pattern
surface.
Disadvantages
 These materials are somewhat fragile, less resistant to sudden
loading and their section may need metal reinforcement.

 The plastics used for this purpose are thermosetting resins.

 Phenolic resin plastics are commonly used.
4. Plaster
 The main advantages of plaster are that it has high
compressive strength and is of high expansion setting
type which compensate for the shrinkage allowance of
the casting metal.
 It is also preferred for production of small size intricate
castings and making core boxes.

 preferable for producing highly intricate casting.

5. Wax

 The commonly used waxes are paraffin wax, shellac

wax, bees-wax, cerasin wax, and micro-crystalline wax.

 used in the process of investment casting where accuracy

is linked with intricacy of the cast object.
TYPES OF PATTERN

1. One piece or solid pattern

2. Two piece or split pattern
3. Cope and drag pattern
4. Three-piece or multi- piece pattern
5. Loose piece pattern
6. Match plate pattern
7. Follow board pattern
8. Gated pattern
9. Sweep pattern
10. Skeleton pattern
11. Segmental or part pattern
1. Loose pattern:
 Loose pattern are patterns which are not connected to other
patterns or mounted on a plate. Loose patterns may be further
classified into:
 1. Solid or Single piece pattern

 2. Self core pattern

 3. Split patterns

 4. Loose piece pattern

1.Solid Pattern/single piece pattern
 Solid pattern is made of single piece without joints, partings
lines or loose pieces. It is the simplest form of the pattern.
 It is an easy pattern to manufacture, but determining the
parting line between cope and drag is more difficult for the
foundry worker.
2. Self core patterns:
 Self core type solid patterns are patterns having a hollow
portion with straight draft which is used for producing its
own core during moulding process itself.
 This type of pattern eliminates the need for core box.
3. Split Pattern:
 The split pattern is comprised of two separate parts that when
put together will represent the geometry of the casting.
 Split pattern is made in two pieces which are joined at the
parting line by means of dowel pins.
 The splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate the
withdrawal of the pattern.
4. Match Plate Pattern:
 -- high production.

 In the match plate pattern, however, each of the parts are

mounted on a plate.
 The plates come together to assemble the pattern for the
casting process.
 - more proficient and makes alignment of the pattern in the
mold quick and accurate.
5. Cope and Drag Pattern:
 Each of the two halves are mounted on a separate plate for easy
alignment of the pattern and mold.
 The cope and drag pattern enables the cope section of the
mold, and the drag section of the mold to be created separately
and latter assembled before the pouring of the casting.
6. Shell patterns:
 --used for piping work or for producing drainage fittings.

 This pattern consists of a thin cylindrical or curved metal piece

parted along the center line.
 The two halves of the pattern are held in alignment by dowels.
6. Gated patterns:
 Gated patterns are number of loose patterns connected with a
gating system.
 They are molded like a single pattern and withdrawn from the
mould in one piece thus reducing moulding time.
 Gated patterns are useful when a number of small castings are to
be produced

Eg. Investment casting

7. Sweep pattern
 Sweep patterns are used for forming large circular moulds of
symmetric kind by revolving a sweep attached to a spindle.
 Actually a sweep is a template of wood or metal and is
attached to the spindle at one edge and the other edge has a
contour depending upon the desired shape of the mould.
 The pivot end is attached to a stake of metal in the center of
the mould.
8. Skeleton pattern
 When only a small number of large and heavy castings are to be
made, it is not economical to make a solid pattern.
 In such cases, however, a skeleton pattern may be used.

 This is a ribbed construction of wood which forms an outline of the

pattern to be made.
 This frame work is filled with loam sand and rammed.

 The surplus sand is removed by stickle board.

 For round shapes, the pattern is made in two halves which are joined
with glue or by means of screws etc.
9. Three-piece or multi-piece pattern
 Some patterns are of complicated kind in shape and
hence can not be made in one or two pieces because of
difficulty in withdrawing the pattern.
 Therefore these patterns are made in either three pieces
or in multi-pieces.
 Multi molding flasks are needed to make mold from
these patterns.
10. Segmental pattern
 Patterns of this type are generally used for circular castings, for
example wheel rim, gear blank etc.
 Such patterns are sections of a pattern so arranged as to form a
complete mould by being moved to form each section of the
mould.
 The movement of segmental pattern is guided by the use of a
central pivot.
11. Follow board pattern
 When the use of solid or split patterns becomes difficult,
a contour corresponding to the exact shape of one half of
the pattern is made in a wooden board, which is called a
follow board and it acts as a molding board for the first
molding operation
PATTERN ALLOWANCES

 The size of a pattern is never kept the same as that of the

desired casting because of the fact that during cooling the
casting is subjected to various effects and hence to
compensate for these effects, corresponding allowances are
given in the pattern.
 These various allowances given to pattern can be enumerated
as,
 allowance for shrinkage,
 allowance for machining,
 allowance for draft,
 allowance for rapping or shake,
 allowance for distortion and
 allowance for mould wall movement.
1. SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE
 In practice it is found that all common cast metals shrink a
significant amount when they are cooled from the molten state.
The total contraction in volume
 1. Liquid contraction, i.e. the contraction during the period in which
the temperature of the liquid metal or alloy falls from the pouring
temperature to the liquidus temperature.
 2. Contraction on cooling from the liquidus to the solidus
temperature, i.e. solidifying contraction.
 3. Contraction that results there after until the temperature reaches
the room temperature. This is known as solid contraction.
 The first two of the above are taken care of by proper gating
and risering.
 Only the last one, i.e. the solid contraction is taken care by the
pattern makers by giving a positive shrinkage allowance.
 The contraction allowances for different metals and alloys
such as

 Cast Iron 10 mm/m.

 Brass 16 mm/m,
 Aluminium Alloys. 15 mm/m.,
 Steel 21 mm/m,
 Lead 24 mm/m.
 Copper 16mm/m.

In fact, there is a special rule known as the pattern marks

contraction rule / shrinkage rule in which the shrinkage of
the casting metals is added.
2. Machining Allowance

 It is a positive allowance given to compensate for the amount

of material that is lost in machining or finishing the casting.
 If this allowance is not given, the casting will become
undersize after machining.
 The amount of this allowance depends on the size of casting,
methods of machining and the degree of finish.
 the value varies from 3 mm. to 18 mm.
3. Draft or Taper Allowance
 Taper allowance is also a positive allowance and is given on all
the vertical surfaces of pattern so that its withdrawal becomes
easier.
 The normal amount of taper on the external surfaces varies
from 10 mm to 20 mm/mt. On interior holes and recesses
which are smaller in size, the taper should be around 60
mm/mt. These values are greatly affected by
 the size of the pattern and the molding method. In machine
molding its, value varies from 10 mm to 50 mm/mt.
4. Rapping or Shake Allowance

 Actually by rapping, the external sections move outwards

increasing the size and internal
 sections move inwards decreasing the size.

 This movement may be insignificant in the case of

 small and medium size castings, but it is significant in the case

of large castings.
 This allowance is kept negative and hence the pattern is
made slightly smaller in dimensions 0.5-1.0 mm.
5. Distortion Allowance

 This allowance is applied to the castings which have the

tendency to distort during cooling due to thermal stresses
developed.
 For example a casting in the form of U shape will contract at
the closed end on cooling, while the open end will remain
fixed in position.
 Therefore, to avoid the distortion, the legs of U pattern must
converge slightly so that the sides will remain parallel after
cooling.
II. CORE
 II. CORE
 Cores serve to produce internal surfaces in castings, in some
cases, they have to be supported by chaplets for more stable
positioning.
 For producing hallow casting.

 The core is normally a disposable item that is destroyed to get

it out of the piece.
Eg. the use of cores is in the
casting of engine blocks
Definition of core:-
Cores are compact mass of core sand that when placed in
mould cavity at required location with proper alignment does
not allow the molten metal to occupy space for solidification in
that portion and hence help to produce hollowness in the
casting.
TYPES OF CORE

Cores are classified according to shape and position in the

mold.

1. Horizontal core
2. Vertical core
3. Balanced core
4. Hanging and cover core –wire support
5. Wind up core- below or above parting line
6. Ram up core- before ramming
7. Kiss core - no core prints (seat)
 Horizontal

 Usually cylindrical, laid

horizontally at parting
plane
 Core rest in seats
provided by core print
on pattern

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 Vertical

 Both in cope and drag

 Top and bottom
provided with taper -
alignment

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 Balanced
 Opening on one side of
casting
 Only one core print
 Core print is made large
to balance the weight
and sufficient support
 Long core supported by
chaplets

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 Cover Cover hanging
from cope plus support
at bottom in drag

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 Hanging

 Core hangs from cope

and no support at bottom
of drag

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 Wing
 When hole is required in
casting above or below the
parting line
 Side of core is given
sufficient amount of taper so
core can be placed easily
 Also called as drop core, tail
core, chair or saddle core

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 Ram – up
 Setting the core brfore
mould is rammed
 core details located in
in-acessible position

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 Kiss Core
 No core prints and no
seta is available
 Core is held between
cope and drag simply by
pressure of cope

09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR

Horizontal Vertical

Cover
Balanced

Hanging Wing

Ram-up Kiss core

 Fig. Vertical core

Fig. Balancing core

 CORE MAKING

 Core making basically is carried out in four stages

namely
 1. core sand preparation,

 2. core making,

 3. core baking and

 4. core finishing.
 I. CORE SAND CHARACTERISTICS / PROPERTIES

 It is special kind of molding sand.

 Those considerations involves

 (i) The cores are subjected to a very high temperature and hence
the core sand should be highly refractory in nature
 (ii) The permeability of the core sand must be sufficiently high as
compared to that of the molding sands so as to allow the core gases
to escape through the limited area of the core recesses generated
by core prints
 (iii) The core sand should not possess such materials which may
produce gases while they come in contact with molten metal and
 (iv) The core sand should be collapsible in nature, i.e. it should
disintegrate after the metal solidifies, because this property will
ease the cleaning of the casting.
 Core Material
 The main constituents of the core sand are pure silica sand and
a binder.
 Silica sand is preferred because of its high refractoriness.

 For higher values of permeability sands with coarse grain size

distribution are used.
 The main purpose of the core binder is to hold the grains
together, impart strength and sufficient degree collapsibility.
Commonly used binders in core making..

1. Cereal binder
It develops green strength, baked strength and collapsibility in core. The amount
of these binders used varies from 0.2 to 2.2% by weight in the core sand.
2. Protein binder
It is generally used to increase collapsibility property of core.
3. Thermo setting resin
It is gaining popularity nowadays because it imparts high strength, collapsibility
to core sand and it also evolve minimum amount of mold and core gases which
may produce defects in the casting. The most common binders under this group
are phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde.
4. Sulphite binder
Sulphite binder is also sometimes used in core but along with certain amount of
clay.
5. Dextrin
It is commonly added in core sand for increasing collapsibility and baked
strength of core
ii. The process of core making is basically mechanized using core
blowing, core ramming and core drawing machines

1.Core blowing machines

 The basic principle of core blowing machine comprises of
filling the core sand into the core box by using compressed air.
 The velocity of the compressed air is kept high to obtain a high
velocity of core sand particles, thus ensuring their deposit in the
remote corners the core box.
 On entering the core sand with high kinetic energy, the shaping
and ramming of core is carried out simultaneously in the core
box.
2. Core ramming machines
 Cores can also be prepared by ramming core sands in the core boxes by
machines based on the principles of squeezing, jolting and slinging.
 Out of these three machines, jolting and slinging are more common for
core making.

3. Core drawing machines

 The core drawing is preferred when the core boxes have deep draws. After
ramming sand in it, the core box is placed on a core plate supported on the
machine bed.
 A rapping action on the core box is produced by a vibrating vertical plate.

 This rapping action helps in drawing off the core from the core box.

 After rapping, the core box, the core is pulled up thus leaving the core on
the core plate.
 The drawn core is then baked further before its use in mold cavity to
produce hollowness in the casting.
iii. Core baking

 Once the cores are prepared, they will be baked in a baking

ovens or furnaces.
 The main purpose of baking is to drive away the moisture and
hard en the binder, thereby giving strength to the core.

Dielectric bakers

 After baking of cores, they are smoothened using dextrin and

water soluble binders.
Type of cores

1. GREEN SAND CORES

 Green sand cores are made by green sand containing moist condition about 5%
water and 15- 30 % clay.
 It imparts very good permeability to core and thus avoids defects like
shrinkage or voids in the casting. Green sand cores are not dried.
 They are poured in green condition and are generally preferred for simple,
small and medium castings.
 Such cores possess less strength in comparison to dry sand cores and hence
cannot be stored for longer period.
2. DRY SAND CORES
 Dry sand cores are produced by drying the green sand cores to about 110°C.

 These cores possess high strength rigidity and also good thermal stability.

 These cores can be stored for long period and are more stable than green sand
core. They are used for large castings.
 They also produce good surface finish in comparison to green sand cores.
 CORE BOX
 Any kind of hollowness in form of holes and recesses in
castings is obtained by the use of cores.
 Cores are made by means of core boxes comprising of either
single or in two parts.
 Core boxes are generally made of wood or metal and are of
several types.
 The main types of core box are
 half core box,
 dump core box,
 split core box,
 strickle core box,
 right and left hand core box and
 loose piece core box.
1. Half core box
 This is the most common type of core box. The two
identical halves of a symmetrical core prepared in the
half core box.
 Two halves of cores are pasted or cemented together
after baking to form a complete core.
2. Dump core box
 Dump core box is similar in construction to half core box.

 The cores produced do not require pasting, rather they are

complete by themselves.
 If the core produced is in the shape of a slab, then it is called as
a slab box or a rectangular box.
 A dump core-box is used to prepare complete core in it.
Generally cylindrical and rectangular cores are prepared in
these boxes.
3. Split core box
 Split core boxes are made in two parts.

 They form the complete core by only one ramming.

 The two parts of core boxes are held in position by means of

clamps and their alignment is maintained by means of dowel
pins and thus core is produced.
4. Right and left hand core box
 Some times the cores are not symmetrical about the center line. In
such cases, right and left hand core boxes are used. The two halves of
a core made in the same core box are not identical and they cannot be
pasted together.
5. Strickle core box
 This type of core box is used when a core with an irregular shape is
desired. The required shape is achieved by striking oft the core sand
from the top of the core box with a wooden piece, called as strickle
board. The strickle board has the same contour as that of the required
core.
6. Loose piece core box
 Loose piece core boxes are highly suitable for making cores where
provision for bosses, hubs etc. is required. In such cases, the loose
pieces may be located by dowels, nails and dovetails etc. In certain
cases, with the help of loose pieces, a single core box can be made to
generate both halves of the right-left core.
Color codification for patterns and core boxes
 There is no set or accepted standard for representing of various
surfaces of pattern and core boxes by different colors.
 The American practice is the most popular.

 In this practice, the color identification is as follows.

surfaces color
Unfinished Surfaces black
Machined surfaces red
Core prints yellow
Seats for loose pieces red stripes on yellow background
Stop-offs black stripes on yellow base
CORE PRINTS
 When a hole blind or through is needed in the casting, a core is
placed in the mould cavity to produce the same.
 The core has to be properly located or positioned in the mould
cavity on pre-formed recesses or impressions in the sand.
 To form these recesses or impressions for generating seat for
placement of core, extra projections are added on the pattern
surface at proper places.
 These extra projections on the pattern (used for producing
recesses in the mould for placement of cores at that location) are
known as core prints.
 The core is placed in the metal casting after the removal
of the pattern.
 III. GATING SYSTEM

 In order for this mold to be functional to manufacture a casting,

in addition to the impression of the part, the mold cavity will
also need to include a gating system.
 Sometimes the gating system will be cut by hand or in more
adept manufacturing procedures the gating system will be
incorporated into the pattern along with the part.
 Basically a gating system functions during the metal casting
operation to facilitate the flow of the molten material into the
mold cavity.
Pouring Basin:
 This is where the molten metal employed to manufacture the
part enters the mold. The pouring basin should have a
projection with a radius around it to reduce turbulence.
Down Sprue:
 From the pouring basin the molten metal for the casting
travels through the down sprue. This should be tapered so its
cross-section is reduced as it goes downward.
Sprue Base:
 The down sprue ends at the sprue base. It is here that the
casting's inner cavity begins.
Gate
 It is a small passage or channel being cut by gate cutter which
connect runner with the mould cavity and through which
molten metal flows to fill the mould cavity.
 It feeds the liquid metal to the casting at the rate consistent
with the rate of solidification.
Choke
 It is that part of the gating system which possesses smallest
cross-section area.
 In choked system, gate serves as a choke, but in free gating
system sprue serves as a choke.
Chaplets
 Chaplets are metal distance pieces inserted in a mould either to
prevent shifting of mould or locate core surfaces.
 The distances pieces in form of chaplets are made of parent metal of
which the casting is. These are placed in mould cavity suitably which
positions core and to give extra support to core and mould surfaces.
 Its main objective is to impart good alignment of mould and core
surfaces and to achieve directional solidification.
 When the molten metal is poured in the mould cavity, the chaplet
melts and fuses itself along with molten metal during solidification
and thus forms a part of the cast material.
Chills
 At that particular position, the special mould surface for fast
extraction of heat is to be made.
 The fast heat extracting metallic materials known as chills will
be incorporated separately along with sand mould surface during
molding.
 Thus, the main function of chill is to provide a hard surface at a
localized place in
 the casting by way of special and fast solidification.
Runners:
 Runners are passages that distribute the liquid metal to the
different areas inside the mold.

Main Cavity:
 The impression of the actual part to be cast is often referred to
as the main cavity.

Vents:
 Vents help to assist in the escape of gases that are expelled from
the molten metal during the solidification phase of the metal
casting process.
 Risers:
 Risers are reservoirs of molten material. They feed this material
to sections of the mold to compensate for shrinkage as the
casting solidifies. There are different classifications for risers.
Top Risers: Risers that feed the metal casting from the top.
Side Risers: Risers that feed the metal casting from the side.
Blind Risers: Risers that are completely contained within the
mold.
Open Risers: Risers that are open at the top to the outside
environment.

Figure . Illustrates the difference

between top risers and side
risers.
 WHY RISER?
 The shrinkage occurs in three stages,
1. When temperature of liquid metal drops from pouring to zero
temperature
2. When the metal changes from liquid to solid state, and
3. When the temperature of solid phase drops from freezing to room
temperature

 The shrinkage for stage 3 is compensated by providing shrinkage

allowance on pattern, while the shrinkage during stages 1 and 2 are
compensated by providing risers.
 The riser should solidify in the last otherwise liquid metal will start
flowing from casting to riser. It should promote directional
solidification. The shape, size and location of the risers are important
considerations in casting design
 IV. MOLDING SAND

 The general sources of receiving molding sands are the beds of

sea, rivers, lakes, granular elements of rocks, and deserts.
 The common sources of molding sands available in India are as
follows:
1 Batala sand ( Punjab)
 2 Ganges sand (Uttar Pradesh)
 3 Oyaria sand (Bihar)
 4 Damodar and Barakar sands (Bengal- Bihar Border)
 5 Londha sand (Bombay)
 6 Gigatamannu sand (Andhra Pradesh) and
 7 Avadi and Veeriyambakam sand (Madras)
 Molding sands may be of two types namely natural or
synthetic.
 Natural molding sands contain sufficient binder.

 Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared artificially

using basic sand molding constituents (silica sand in 88-92%,
binder 6-12%, water or moisture content 3-6%) and other
additives in proper proportion by weight with perfect mixing
and mulling in suitable equipments.
CONSTITUENTS OF MOLDING SAND

 The main constituents of molding sand involve silica sand, binder, moisture
content and additives.
1. Silica sand
 Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main constituent of molding
sand having enough refractoriness which can impart strength, stability and
permeability to molding and core sand.
 But along with silica small amounts of iron oxide, alumina, lime stone,
magnesia, soda and potash are present as impurities.
 The chemical composition of silica sand gives an idea of the impurities like
lime, magnesia, alkalis etc. present.
 The presence of excessive amounts of iron oxide, alkali oxides and lime can
lower the fusion point to a considerable extent which is undesirable.
 The silica sand can be specified according to the size (small, medium and
large silica sand grain) and the shape (angular, sub-angular and rounded).
2. Binder

 In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic substance.

 The inorganic group includes clay sodium silicate and port land cement
etc. In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be Kaolonite, Ball
Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s earth and Bentonite.
 Binders included in the organic group are dextrin, molasses, cereal binders,
linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde etc.
 Organic binders are mostly used for core making.

 Among all the above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is the most
common.
 However, this clay alone can not develop bonds among sand grins without
the presence of moisture in molding sand and core sand.
3. Moisture
 The amount of moisture content in the molding sand varies generally
between 2 to 8 percent.
 This amount is added to the mixture of clay and silica sand for
developing bonds.
 This is the amount of water required to fill the pores between the
particles of clay without separating them.
 This amount of water is held rigidly by the clay and is mainly
responsible for developing the strength in the sand.
 The effect of clay and water decreases permeability with increasing
clay and moisture content.
 The green compressive strength first increases with the increase in
clay content, but after a certain value, it starts decreasing.
4 Additives
 Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and
core sand mixture to develop some special property in the sand.
4.1 Coal dust
 Coal dust is added mainly for producing a reducing atmosphere
during casting.
 This reducing atmosphere results in any oxygen in the poles
becoming chemically bound so that it cannot oxidize the metal.
 It is usually added in the molding sands for making molds for
production of grey iron and malleable cast iron castings.
4.2 Corn flour
 It belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates and is used to
increase the collapsibility of the molding and core sand.
 It is completely volatilized by heat in the mould, thereby
leaving space between the sand grains.
 This allows free movement of sand grains, which finally gives
rise to mould wall movement and decreases the mold expansion
and hence defects in castings.
 Corn sand if added to molding sand and core sand improves
significantly strength of the mold and core.
4.3 Dextrin
 Dextrin belongs to starch family of carbohydrates that behaves also in a
manner similar to that of the corn flour. It increases dry strength of the
molds.
4.4 Sea coal
 Sea coal is the fine powdered bituminous coal which positions its place
among the pores of the silica sand grains in molding sand and core sand.
 When heated, it changes to coke which fills the pores and is unaffected
by water: Because to this, the sand grains become restricted and cannot
move into a dense packing pattern.
 Thus, sea coal reduces the mould wall movement and the permeability
in mold and core sand and hence makes the mold and core surface clean
and smooth.
4.5 Pitch
 It is distilled form of soft coal. It can be added from 0.02 % to 2% in
mold and core sand.
 It enhances hot strengths, surface finish on mold surfaces and behaves
exactly in a manner similar to that of sea coal.
4.6 Wood flour
 This is a fibrous material mixed with a granular material like sand; its
relatively long thin fibers prevent the sand grains from making contact
with one another.
 It can be added from 0.05 % to 2% in mold and core sand.

 It also increases collapsibility of both of mold and core.

4.7 Silica flour

 It is called as pulverized silica and it can be easily added up to 3% which
increases the hot strength and finish on the surfaces of the molds and
cores. It also reduces metal penetration in the walls of the molds and
cores.
MOULDING SAND/ FOUNDRY SAND
 Moulding Sands:
 Most sand casting operations use Silica sand (SiO2). Usually

sand used to manufacture a mould for the casting process is

held together by a mixture of water and clay. A typical
mixture by volume could be 89% sand, 4% water, 7% clay.
TYPES OF MOULDING SANDS

 Classification of moulding sands:

1. Green sand:
 It is sand used in the wet condition for making the mould. It is
mixture of silica sand with 15-25 per cent clay and 6-8 per cent
water
 As explained earlier green sand moulds are not dried and metal
is poured in them in the wet condition
 Being damp the sand can be easily worked with hand to give it
any desired shape

This sand is used for producing

small to medium sized moulds
which are not very complex
2. Dry sand:
 Dry sand is the green sand that has been dried or baked after
preparing the mould.
 Drying sand gives strength to the mould so that it can be used
for larger castings
 3. Loam sand:
 Loam sand is sand containing up to 50 % clay which has been
worked to the consistency of builder mortar.
 This sand is used for loam sand moulds for making very heavy
castings usually with the help of sweeps and skeleton patterns.
 4. Parting sand:
 This sand is used during making of the mould to ensure that
green sand does not stick to the pattern and the cope and drug
parts can be easily separated for removing the pattern without
causing any damage to the mould.
 Parting sand consists of fine grained clay free dried silica sand,
sea sand or burnt sand with some parting compounds.
 The parting compounds used include charcoal, ground bone and
limestone, groundnut shells, talc and calcium phosphate.
 5. Facing sand:
 Facing sand is the sand which covers the pattern all around it. The
remaining box is filled with ordinary floor sand.
 Facing sand forms the face of the mould and comes in direct
contact with the molten metal when it is poured.
 High strength and refractoriness are required for this sand.

 It is made of silica sand and clay without the addition of any used
sand.
 Graphite, mollases, plumbago etc. may be added to the facing
sand. Thickness of the sand layer varies from 20 to 30 mm.
 6. Backing sand:
 Backing sand is the bulk of the sand used to back up the facing
sand and to fill up the volume of the flask.
 It consists mainly of old, repeatedly used moulding sand which is
generally black in colour due to addition of coal dust and burning
on contact with hot metal.
 Because of the colour backing sand is also sometimes called black
sand.
 The main purpose for the use of backing sand is to reduce the cost
of moulding.
 7. System sand:
 This is the sand used in mechanized foundries for filling the
entire flask.
 No separate facing sand in used in a mechanized foundry.

 Sand, cleaned and reactivated by the addition of water and

binders is used to fill the flask. Because of the absence of any
fresh sand, system sand must have more strength, permeability
and refractoriness compared to backing sand.
 8. Core sand:
 Core sand is the sand used for making cores. This is silica sand
mixed with core oil. That is why it is also called oil sand.
 The core oil consists of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil with
some binders.
 For larger cores, sometimes pitch or flour and water may also be
used to save on cost.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS ARE:

 1. These sands are refractory in nature and can withstand

temperature of the metal being poured, without fusing.
 2. The moulding sands do not chemically react or combine
with molten metal and can therefore be used repeatedly.
 3. The sands have a high degree of permeability and thus allow
the gases formed during pouring to escape.
 4. The strength, permeability and hardness of the sand mix can
be varied by changing the structure or ingredients of sand.
PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SANDS:
 1. Strength
 2. Permeability
 3. Grain Size and Shape
 4. Thermal stability
 5. Refractoriness
 6. Flow ability
 7. Sand Texture
 8. Collapsibility
 9. Adhesiveness
 10. Reusability
 11. Easy of preparation and control
 12. Conductivity
STRENGTH:

 The sand should have adequate strength in its green, dry and hot
states
 Green strength is the strength of sand in the wet state and is
required for making possible to prepare and handle the mould.
 If the metal is poured into a green mould the sand adjacent to
the metal dries and in the dry state it should have strength to
resist erosion and the pressure of metal.
 The strength of the sand that has been dried or basked is called
dry strength.
 At the time of pouring the molten metal the mould must be able
to withstand flow and pressure of the metal at high temperature
otherwise the mould may enlarge, crack, get washed or break
STRENGTH OF THE MOULDING SAND DEPENDS ON:

 1. Grain size and shape

 2. Moisture content

 3. Density of sand after ramming

 The strength of the mould increases with a decrease of grain

size and an increase of clay content and density after
ramming.

 The strength also goes down if moisture content is higher than

an optimum value.
 2. Permeability:
 The moulding sand must be sufficiently porous to allow the
dissolved gases, which are evolved when the metal freezes
or moisture present or generated within the moulds to be
removed freely when the moulds are poured.
 This property of sand is called porosity or permeability.
 3. Grain size and shape:
 ·The size and shape of the grains in the sand determine the
application in various types of foundry. These are three
different sizes of sand grains.
 1. Fine

 2. Medium

 3. Coarse

 Fine sand is used for small and intricate castings.

 Medium sand is used for benchmark and light floor works.

 If the size of casting is larger coarse sand is used

 Sand having fine, rounded grains can be closely packed and

forms a smooth surface. Although fine-grained sand enhances
mould strength.
4. Thermal stability:
 The sand adjacent to the metal is suddenly heated and
undergoes expansion.
 If the mould wall is not dimensionally stable under rapid
heating, cracks, buckling and flacking off sand may occur.
5. Refractoriness:
 Refractoriness is the property of withstanding the high
temperature condition moulding sand with low
refractoriness may burn on to the casting.
 It is the ability of the moulding material to resist the
temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so that it
does not get fused with the metal.
 The refractoriness of the Silica sand is highest.
 6. Flowability:
 Flowability or plasticity is the property of the sand to respond
to the moulding process so that when rammed it will flow all
around the pattern and take the desired mould shape. High
flowability of sand is desirable for the sand to get compacted
to a uniform density and to get good impression of the pattern
in the mould.

Flowability is also very

important in machine
moulding
·Flowability of sand
increases as clay and
water content are
increased.
 7. Sand texture:
 As mentioned earlier the texture of sand is defined by its
grain size and grain size distribution.
 The texture chosen for an application should allow the
required porosity, provide enough strength and produce the
desired surface finish on the casting.
 8. Collapsibility:

 The moulding sand should collapse during the contraction of

the solidified casting it does not provide any resistance,
which may result in cracks in the castings.
 Besides these specific properties the moulding material
should be cheap, reusable and should have good thermal
conductivity
 9. Adhesiveness:
 The sand particles must be capable of adhering to another body,
then only the sand should be easily attach itself with the sides
of the moulding box and give easy of lifting and turning the box
when filled with the stand.

Cohesiveness
10. Reusability:
 Since large quantities of sand are used in a foundry it is very
important that the sand be reusable otherwise apart from cost it
will create disposal problems

11. Easy of preparation and control:

 Sand should lend itself to easy preparation and control by
mechanical equipment

12. Conductivity:
 Sand should have enough conductivity to permit removal of heat
from the castings.
SAND TESTING METHODS AND SAND TESTING EQUIPMENT

1. Moisture content Test

 1. Moisture content test
2. Clay content Test
 2. Clay content test 3. Chemical composition of sand
 3. Grain fitness test 4. Grain shape and surface texture of sand.
 4. Permeability test 5. Grain size distribution of sand
6. Specific surface of sand grains
 5. Strength test
7. Water absorption capacity of sand
 6. Refractoriness test 8. Refractoriness of sand
 7. Mould hardness test 9. Strength Test
10. Permeability Test
11. Flowability Test
12. Shatter index Test
13. Mould hardness Test.
1. MOISTURE CONTENT TEST:

 Moisture is the property of the moulding sand it is

defined as the amount of water present in the moulding
sand. Low moisture content in the moulding sand does
not develop strength properties. High moisture content
decreases permeability.
 Procedures are:
 1. 20 to 50 gms of prepared sand is placed in the pan and is
heated by an infrared heater bulb for 2 to 3 minutes.
 2. The moisture in the moulding sand is thus evaporated.

 3. Moulding sand is taken out of the pan and reweighed.

 4. The percentage of moisture can be calculated from the

difference in the weights, of the original moist and the
consequently dried sand samples.
 Percentage of moisture content = (W1-W2)/(W1) %

Where, W1-Weight of the sand before drying,

W2-Weight of the sand after drying.
2. CLAY CONTENT TEST
 Clay influences strength, permeability and other
moulding properties. It is responsible for bonding sand
particles together.
PROCEDURES ARE:
 1. Small quantity of prepared moulding sand was dried
 2. Separate 50 gms of dry moulding sand and transfer wash bottle.

 3. Add 475cc of distilled water + 25cc of a 3% NaOH.

 4. Agitate this mixture about 10 minutes with the help of sand stirrer.

 5. Fill the wash bottle with water up to the marker.

 6. After the sand etc., has settled for about 10 minutes, Siphon out the water
from the wash bottle.
 7. Dry the settled down sand.

 8. The clay content can be determined from the difference in weights of the
initial and final sand samples.

Percentage of clay content = (W1-W2)/(W1) * 100

Where,
 W1-Weight of the sand before drying,
 W2-Weight of the sand after drying.
3. GRAIN FITNESS TEST:

 The grain size, distribution, grain fitness are determined with the
help of the fitness testing of moulding sands.
 The apparatus consists of a number of standard sieves mounted
one above the other, on a power driven shaker.
 The shaker vibrates the sieves and the sand placed on the top
sieve gets screened and collects on different sieves depending
upon the various sizes of grains present in the moulding sand.
 The top sieve is coarsest and the bottom-most sieve is the finest
of all the sieves. In between sieve are placed in order of fineness
from top to bottom.
 Procedures are:
 1. Sample of dry sand (clay removed sand) placed in the
upper sieve
 2. Sand is vibrated for definite period

 3. The amount of same retained on each sieve is weighted.

 4. Percentage distribution of grain is computed.

3. PERMEABILITY TEST:
 The quantity of air that will pass through a standard
specimen of the sand at a particular pressure condition is
called the permeability of the sand.
 Following are the major parts of the permeability test
equipment:
 1. An inverted bell jar, which floats in a water.

 2. Specimen tube, for the purpose of hold the equipment

 3. A manometer (measure the air pressure)

Steps involved are:
 1. The air (2000cc volume) held in the bell jar is forced to pass
through the sand specimen.
 2. At this time air entering the specimen equal to the air escaped
through the specimen
 3. Take the pressure reading in the manometer.

 4. Note the time required for 2000cc of air to pass the sand

 5. Calculate the permeability number

 6. Permeability number (N) = ((V x H) / (A x P x T))

 Where,
 V-Volume of air (cc)
 H-Height of the specimen (mm)
 A-Area of the specimen (mm2)
 P-Air pressure (gm / cm2)
 T-Time taken by the air to pass through the sand (seconds)
 STRENGTH TEST:
 Measurements of strength of moulding sands can be carried out
on the universal sand strength testing machine. The strength can
be measured in compression, shear and tension.
 The sands that could be tested are green sand, dry sand or core
sand. The compression and shear test involve the standard
cylindrical specimen that was used for the permeability test.

Steps involved are:

1. Specimen is held between the
grips
2. Apply the hydraulic pressure
by rotating the hand wheel
3. Taking the deformation use of
the indicators.
 REFRACTORINESS TEST
 The refractoriness is used to measure the ability of the
sand to withstand the higher temperature.

Steps involved are:

1. Prepare a cylindrical specimen of sand
2. Heating the specimen at 1500 C for 2
hours
3. Observe the changes in dimension and
appearance
4. If the sand is good, it retains specimen
share and shows very little expansion. If
the sand is poor, specimen will shrink and
distort.
MOULD HARDNESS
TEST
 Hardness of the mould surface can be tested with the help of an “indentation
hardness tester”. It consists of indicator, spring loaded spherical indenter.

The spherical indenter is penetrates into the mould

surface at the time of testing. The depth of
penetration w.r.t. the flat reference surface of the
tester.
Mould hardness number = ((P) / (D – (D2-d2))
Where,
P- Applied Force (N)
D- Diameter of the indenter (mm)
d- Diameter of the indentation (mm)
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SAND
CASTING
 Advantages of sand casting

 Low cost of mold materials and equipment.

 Large casting dimensions may be obtained.

 Wide variety of metals and alloys (ferrous and non-ferrous) may

be cast (including high melting point metals).
 Disadvantages of sand casting

 Rough surface.
 Poor dimensional accuracy.

 High machining tolerances.

 Coarse Grain structure.

 Limited wall thickness: not higher than 0.1”-0.2” (2.5-5 mm).

Advantages: Can produce very large parts
Can form complex shapes
Many material options
Low tooling and equipment cost
Scrap can be recycled
Short lead time possible

Disadvantages: Poor material strength

High porosity possible
Poor surface finish and tolerance
Seondary machining often required
Low production rate
High labor cost

Applications: Engine blocks and manifolds, machine bases, gears,

pulleys, crankshafts, connecting rods, and propellers,
cylinder heads, and transmission cases
 V. The Mold
•The pattern is placed in the mold
and the mold material is packed
around it.
• The mold contains two parts,
the drag (bottom), and the cope
(top).
•The parting line between the
cope and drag allows for the
mold to be opened and the pattern
to be removed once the
impression has been made.
•For some moulds additional
intermediate boxes called
“Cheeks” may be required.

A typical mold is shown in figure

MOLD (USED IN US ) / MOULD ( USED IN BRITAIN ET AL.)

 A mold is formed into the geometric shape of a desired part.

 Molten metal is then poured into the mold, the mold holds this
material in shape as it solidifies. A metal casting is created.
 Molds can be classified as either open or closed.

 A open mold is a container, like a cup, that has only the shape
of the desired part.
 The molten material is poured directly into the mold cavity
which is exposed to the open environment.
OPEN AND CLOSED
MOULD
 Two main branches of methods can be distinguished by the
basic nature of the mold they employ.
 There is expendable mold casting and permanent mold
casting.

•Expendable Mold Can •Permanent Mold Can

produce one metal casting only manufacture many metal
•Made of sand, plaster, or other castings
similar material. Binders used •Usually made of metal or
to help material hold its form. sometimes a refractory ceramic
•Mold that metal solidifies in •Mold has sections that can
must be destroyed to remove open or close permitting
casting removal of the casting
•More intricate geometries are •Need to open mold limits part
possible for casting shapes
MOULD MAKING
 Making a mould properly means a casting half done.
 A sand mould is formed by packing sand into each half of the
mould.
 The sand is packed around the pattern, which is a replica of the
external shape of the casting.
 When the pattern is removed, the cavity that will form the
casting remains.
 Any internal features of the casting that cannot be formed by
the pattern are formed by separate cores which are made of
sand prior to the formation of the mould.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MOLD

 The mould should be strong enough to resist erosion by the flow of the
metal and to take the weight of the metal.
 The mould material should not produce too much of gases as the gases
may enter the mould cavity and get entrapped with metal or violently
boil out the metal.
 The mould should be made in such a way that gases generated are
vented out of the mould.
 The mould should be refractory enough to withstand the high
temperature of liquid metal.
 The cores should be collapsible enough to permit contraction of the
metal after solidification.
 Flow should be laminar i.e. smooth flow
 There should be a proper riser system in the mould to provide sufficient
extra metal to account for the liquid and solidification shrinkage.
 The mould material and moulding process should be such that cleaning
of castings is facilitated.
MOLDING TOOLS
1.Mallet:
 It is a mallet to loosen the pattern in the mould by striking
slightly, so that it can be withdrawn without damaging the
mould
 2. Gate cutter:
 It is a metal piece to the gate the opening that connects tee
sprue with the mould cavity. (sleek)
 3. Rapping plate (or) Lifting plate:
 It is used to facilitate shaking and lifting large pattern from the
mold.
 4. Spirit level:
 It is used to check that the sand bed, moulding box or table of
moulding machine is horizontal.
 5. Clamps:
 Clamps are used to hold the cope and drag of the complete
mould together so that the cope may not float or rise when the
molten metal is poured into the mould.
 6. Moulding box:
 Sand moulds are prepared specially constructed boxes called the
moulding boxes or flasks. The function and construction of a
molding box have already been described.

Moulding flasks
 7.Shovel:
 It is just like rectangular pan fitted with a handle. It is
used for mixing the moulding sand and for moving it

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from one place to the other.

MILIND WASEKAR
 8. Riddle:
 It is used for removing foreign materials like nails, shot
metal splinters of wood etc from the moulding sand.

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MILIND WASEKAR
 9. Rammer:
 It is a wooden tool used for ramming or packing the sand
in the mould. Rammers are made in different shapes.

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MILIND WASEKAR
 10. Strike-off bar:
 It is a cast iron or wrought iron bar with a true straight edge. It
is used to remove the surplus sand from the mould after the
ramming has been completed.

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MILIND WASEKAR
 11. Vent wire:
 It is a mild steel wire used for making vents or openings in
the mould.

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MILIND WASEKAR
 12. Lifter:
 It is a metal piece used for patching deep section of the

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mould and removing loose sand from pockets of the mould.
 13. Slick:

 Different types of slicks are used for repairing and finishing

MILIND WASEKAR
moulds.
14. Trowel:
It contains of a flat and thick metal sheet
with upwards projected handle at one end. It
is used for making joints and finishing flat
surface of a mould.
15. Swab:
It is made of flax or hemp. It is used for
applying water to the mould around the
edge of the pattern.
MOULDING MACHINES

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 Moulding processes may be classified as hand moulding or
machine moulding according to whether the mould is prepared
by hand tools or with the aid of some moulding machine.

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 Hand moulding is generally found to be economical when the
castings are required in a small number.
 The major functions of molding machines involves ramming of
molding sand, rolling over or inverting the mould, rapping the
pattern and withdrawing the pattern from the mould.
 Most of the molding machines perform a combination of two
or more of functions.
Types of Moulding machine:

1. Hand Operated molding machine

09/04/2021
a. Pattern draw type
b. Pattern draw and Squeeze type
c. Pin Lift type machine

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d. Roll Over type machine

2. Power operated Molding Machine

a. Squeeze machine
b. Jolt machine
c. Jolt squeeze machine
d. Jolt squeeze roll over pattern draw
machine
e. Sand Slinger
SQUEEZER

 1.table2. pattern 3. flask. 4.Sand frame 5. platen

6. squeezer head. 7. frame

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SQUEEZER

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 Molding sand squeezed between machine table
and overhead squeeze board

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 Pneumatic or hydraulic

 Top squeezing

 Bottom squeezing

 Limitation- sand is packed more densely on top

of mould
 Density deceases uniformly with depth

 At parting plane density is lowest

 Restricted to molds up to 150 mm depth

JOLT MACHINE
 1.table.3.patern and
flask.8. plunger.9
hose.10. channel.
 11. opening

 12. guide cylinder

 13. springs

09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR

09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
 09/04/2021
 Flask is filled with moulding sand
 Table supporting flask is raised and dropped in

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succession
 Due to sudden change in inertia – sand gets
packed and rammed
 Action of raising and sudden dropping – jolt

 Drawback – sand is rammed hardest at parting

plane sand remains les dense at tops
 Preferred fro horizontal surfaces
JOLT SQUEEZE MACHINE

09/04/2021
 Jolting action to consolodate sand on face of pattern
 Squeezing – desired density throughout mass of sand

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 Mold with maximum hardness,unform ramming
 SAND SLINGER
Slinging – consolidation and ramming due to impact of sand
which falls at very high velocity

Rate – 500 to 2000kg per min.

Mold of adequate strength , hardness

 Overhead impellar
head 1. housing. 2.
blade 3. opening 4.
outlet
 Conveyor buckets

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Jolt-Squeeze machine

09/04/2021
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Sand slinger
5. PATTERN DRAW MACHINES

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 These machines enable easy withdrawal of patterns from the
molds.
 They can be of the kind of stripping plate type and pin lift or

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push off type.
 The pattern is drawn through the stripping plate either by
raising the stripping plate and the mould up and keeping the
pattern stationary or by keeping the stripping plate and mould
stationary and moving the pattern supporting ram downwards
along with the pattern and pattern plate.
 A suitable mechanism can be incorporated in the machine for
these movements.
 6.stripping pins
 1.pattern, 3. pattern plate, table 5, molding box 2

 4. stripping plate between patern plate and flask

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6 ROLL-OVER MACHINE
 The pattern is mounted on a plate which is secured to the roll-

09/04/2021
over frame.
 The platen of the machine can be moved up and down.

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 For preparation of the mould, the roll-over frame is clamped
in position with the pattern facing upward.
 Molding box is placed over the pattern plate and clamped
properly.
 Molding sand is then filled in it and rammed by hand and the
extra molding sand is struck off and molding board placed
over the box and clamped to it.
 Turn over
 Flask together with work
table rotates 1800 and
pin 6 lifts table with
pattern
 Pins 6

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FOUNDRY SAFETY

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MILIND WASEKAR
Hand Pouring Equipment
LADLES

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 Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold
is sometimes done using crucibles
 More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and
(b) two‑man ladle.

MILIND WASEKAR
The casting process ( Special Casting process)

1 - Expendable mold casting

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(sand, plastic, shell, and investment (lost-wax technique) mouldings.)

2 - Nonexpendable mold casting

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(permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting).

Classification of die casting:

(a)Gravity Die Casting (also called permanent mould process)

(b)Pressure Die Casting

09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
PRECISION OR INVESTMENT CASTING
(LOST WAX CASTING)

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 Investment (lost wax) casting is a method of precision
casting complex near-net-shape details using replication
of wax patterns.

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 Precision or investment casting employed techniques
that enable very smooth highly accurate castings to be
made from both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys
 The process is useful in casting unmachinable alloys and
radioactive metals.

 In investment casting, the pattern is made of wax, which

melts after making the mold to produce the mold cavity.
 09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Ceramic
particles, wet
plaster Investment,
up to 3-5 mm
Ceramic slurry materials

09/04/2021
Mullite: Al2O3 44-48%, SiO2
47-51%, Fe2O3 max. 1%, TiO2
max. 1%.

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Zircon flour.

Binders: Colloidal Silica SiO2

25-45%, Na2O max.1% in
distilled water;
sodium silicate
NaO*nSiO2*mH2O; ethyl
silicate Si(OC2H5)4.
09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
INVESTMENT CASTING PROCESS
 The investment casting process uses expendable patterns made of investment casting wax.

09/04/2021
 The wax patterns are commonly prepared by injection molding technology which involves
injection of wax into a prefabricated die having the same geometry of the cavity as the
desired cast part.
 The wax patterns are then attached to a gating system (a set of channels through which a

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molten metal flows to the mold cavity).
 The next stage is the shell building - the wax assembly is immersed into refractory ceramic
slurry of hardening mixtures followed by drying. This operation is repeatedly carried out
resulting in formation of a solid ceramic shell of 1/4” -3/8” (6mm – 9mm) thick.
 The next stage is dewax. At this stage the assembly is heated in an autoclave where the most
of the wax is melted out. This operation is followed by burning out the residual wax in a
furnace.
 The mold is then preheated to 1830°F (1000°C). Now the mold is ready for filling with a
molten metal.
 Casting stage is conventional operation involving pouring a molten metal into the shell
through the gating system.
 After the metal has solidified and cooled to a desired temperature, the shell is broken and the
castings are cut away from the gates and sprue.
 The last stage is finishing carried out by sandblasting or machining.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INVESTMENT
CASTING

Advantages:

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 Excellent surface finish.
 Tight dimensional tolerances.

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 Complex and intricate shapes may be produced.

 Capability to cast thin walls.

 Wide variety of metals and alloys (ferrous and non-ferrous) may be cast.

 Draft is not required in the molds design.

 Low material waste.

Disadvantages:

 Individual pattern is required for each casting.

 Limited casting dimensions.

 Relatively high cost (tooling cost, labor cost).

 09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Turbine blades

Turbine blades, armament parts, pipe

fittings, lock parts, handtools,
Applications: art pieces, jewelry, dental fixtures,
automotive, aircraft, and military
industries.
DIE CASTING

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A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal
is injected into mold cavity under high pressure up to
30,000 psi (200 MPa).

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 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is
opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the
name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes
DIE CASTING MACHINES
 Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and keep them
closed while liquid metal is forced into cavity

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 Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine

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2. Cold‑chamber machine

Cold-chamber Die Casting:

(1)
 Material to be cast is molten outside the machine.

 Used for materials having high melting temperature Tm> 550°C, i.e.
brass, aluminum, and magnesium.

(2) Hot-chamber Die Casting:

 Materials to be cast is molten inside the machine.

 Used for materials having low melting temperature Tm< 550°C, i.e. zinc,
tin, and lead.
HOT-CHAMBER DIE CASTING

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Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal
under high pressure into the die

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 High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon

 Applications limited to low melting ‑ point metals that do not

chemically attack plunger and other mechanical components

 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
HOT-CHAMBER DIE CASTING

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Figure. Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger
withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber (2) plunger forces metal in
chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.
COLD‑CHAMBER DIE CASTING
MACHINE

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 Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external
melting container, and a piston injects metal under high
pressure into die cavity

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 High production but not usually as fast as hot‑chamber
machines because of pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys

 Advantages of cold‑chamber process favor its use on low

melting ‑ point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
COLD‑CHAMBER DIE CASTING

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed
and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber
MOLDS FOR DIE CASTING

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 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to

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die cast steel and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens

 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking

Common metals for die

casting.
Alloys of aluminum
Zinc
Magnesium
Lead
Copper
Tin
 DIE CASTING

09/04/2021
Can produce large parts
Can form complex shapes
High strength parts

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Advantages: Very good surface finish and accuracy
High production rate
Low labor cost
Scrap can be recycled
Trimming is required
High tooling and equipment cost
Disadvantages:
Limited die life
Long lead time
Engine components, pump components, automobile
components, household appliances, railway and aircraft
Applications:
fittings, bath room hardware, business machines, locks,
pullers
09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

09/04/2021
 Centrifugal casting is a method of casting parts having
axial symmetry. The method involves pouring molten
metal into a cylindrical mold spinning about its axis of

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symmetry.
 The mold is kept rotating till the metal has solidified.

 As the mold material steels, Cast irons, Graphite or sand

may be used.

 The rotation speed of centrifugal mold is commonly

about 1000 RPM (may vary from 250 RPM to 3600
RPM).
 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING IS CARRIED OUT AS FOLLOWS

 The mold wall is coated by a refractory ceramic coating (applying

ceramic slurry, spinning, drying and baking).

09/04/2021
 Starting rotation of the mold at a predetermined speed.

 Pouring a molten metal directly into the mold (no gating system is

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employed).
 The mold is stopped after the casting has solidified.

 Extraction of the casting from the mold.

The centrifugal group includes:

 A. True centrifugal casting
 B. Semi-centrifugal casting
 C. Centrifuge casting
09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
A. TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

09/04/2021
Fig. Setup for true centrifugal casting.

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 Non-metallic and slag inclusions
and gas bubbles being less dense
than the melt are forced to the
inner surface of the casting by the

09/04/2021
centrifugal forces.
 This impure zone is then removed

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by machining.

 used for manufacturing of iron

pipes, bushings, wheels, pulleys
bi-metal steel-bronze bearings
and other parts possessing axial
symmetry.
B. SEMI-CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than

09/04/2021
tubular parts
 Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal

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 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than
at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined
away, thus eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
 The process is suitable for large axis-symmetrical castings like
gear blanks, fly wheels and track wheels.
SEMI-CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
C. CENTRIFUGE CASTING

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Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis
of rotation, so that molten metal poured into mold is
distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force

MILIND WASEKAR
 Used for smaller parts

 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other

centrifugal casting methods
The process is used

09/04/2021
on parts in which the
center of the casting

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is machined away,
such as wheels and
pulleys.

Centrifuge Casting
 CONTINUOUS CASTING
 Continuous casting is a casting method, in which the steps of pouring,

09/04/2021
solidification and withdrawal (extraction) of the casting from an open
end mold are carried out continuously.
 Cross-sectional dimensions of a continuous casting are constant along

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the casting length and they are determined only by the dimensions of
the mold cavity.
 The length of a continuous casting is limited by the life time of the
mold.
 Continuous casting technology is used for both ferrous and non-ferrous
alloys.
Depending on the mold position (vertical or horizontal) continuous
casting machines may be vertical or horizontal:
 Vertical continuous casting

 Horizontal continuous casting

VERTICAL CONTINUOUS CASTING
 Molten metal is continuously supplied from the ladle to the

09/04/2021
intermediate ladle (tundish) from which it is continuously
poured into the mold at a controllable rate keeping the melt
level at a constant position.

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 The water-cooled copper mold (primary cooling zone)
extracts the heat of the metal causing its solidification. The
mold oscillates in order to prevent sticking with the casting.
 When the casting goes out from the mold it is cooled in the
secondary cooling zone by water (or water with air) sprayed
on the casting surface.
 The casting is continuously extracted from the mold by the
withdrawal unit followed by a cut-off unit.
 Then a molten metal is poured into the mold where it solidifies
and grips the end of the dummy bar.
09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
HORIZONTAL CONTINUOUS CASTING

09/04/2021
 Horizontal continuous casting machine is generally
used for casting non-ferrous alloys.

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 Horizontal continuous casting in stationary mold with
graphite water-cooled molds, Twin-roll caster and Twin-
belt caster are most popular methods of this type.
 Due to the water cooling (primary and secondary)
solidification rate provided by continuous casting is
higher than in other casting methods therefore
continuous castings have more uniform and finer grain
structure and enhanced mechanical properties.
09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
COMPARISON OF CASTING
PROCESSES

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MILIND WASEKAR
09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
ADDITIONAL STEPS AFTER
SOLIDIFICATION

09/04/2021
 Trimming
 Removing the core

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 Surface cleaning

 Inspection

 Repair, if required

 Heat treatment
TRIMMING

09/04/2021
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting‑line flash, fins,
chaplets, and any other excess metal from the cast part

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 For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections are
relatively small, appendages can be broken off
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack‑sawing,
band‑sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various torch
cutting methods are used
REMOVING THE CORE

09/04/2021
If cores have been used, they must be removed
 Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of casting

MILIND WASEKAR
as the binder deteriorates
 In some cases, they are removed by shaking casting,
either manually or mechanically
 In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
 CLEANING AND FINISHING
1. Casting is taken out of the mould by shaking and the Moulding
sand is recycled often with suitable additions.

09/04/2021
2. The remaining sand, some of which may be embedded in the
casting, is removed by means of Shot blasting.

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3. The excess material in the form of sprue, runners, gates etc.,
along with the flashes formed due to flow of molten metal into
the gaps is broken manually in case of brittle casting or
removed by sawing and grinding in case of ductile grinding.
4. The entire casting is then cleaned by either shot blasting or
chemical pickling.
5. Sometimes castings are heat treated to achieve better
mechanical properties.
SURFACE CLEANING

09/04/2021
Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise
enhancing appearance of surface

MILIND WASEKAR
 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air‑blasting with coarse
sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and
chemical pickling
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting
 In many permanent mold processes, this step can be
avoided
 Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is needed
to detect their presence
HEAT TREATMENT

09/04/2021
 Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties
 Reasons for heat treating a casting:

MILIND WASEKAR
 For subsequent processing operations such as
machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the application
of the part in service
CASTING QUALITY

09/04/2021
 There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong
in a casting operation, resulting in quality defects in the
product

MILIND WASEKAR
 The defects can be classified as follows:
 General defects common to all casting processes
 Defects related to sand casting process
 Casting Defects

09/04/2021
Casting defects
Surface Internal Visible defects

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Defect Defect
Blow Blow holes Wash
Scar Porosity Rat tail
Blister Pin holes Swell
Drop Inclusions Misrun
Scab Dross Cold shut
Penetration Hot tear
Buckle Shrinkage/Shift
Casting Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely filling
mold cavity

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Casting Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due to
premature freezing

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MILIND WASEKAR
Casting Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and become entrapped in
casting

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Casting Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification

shrinkage that restricts amount of molten metal available in last

09/04/2021
region to freeze

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Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow/ blow holes

Balloon‑shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold gases during pouring

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes and porosity
Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas bubbles, while porosity indicates a
large number of uniformly distributed tiny holes. Pin holes are tiny blow
holes appearing just below the casting surface.

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Sand Casting Defects: Hot tears
 Hot tears are ragged irregular internal or external cracks occurring
immediately after the metal have solidified.
 Hot tears occur on poorly designed castings having abrupt section changes or

09/04/2021
having no proper fillets or corner radii. Wrongly placed chills.

MILIND WASEKAR
Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into sand mold or core,
causing casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift/ Mismatch
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise relative displacement of
cope and drag

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Sand Casting Defects: Sand Inclusions

Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal matrix,

Lighter impurities appearing the casting surface are dross.

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Sand Casting Defects: Scabs
 Scabs are rough, irregular projections on surface of castings
containing embedded sand.
 Scabs occur when a portion on the face of mould or core lifts

09/04/2021
and metal flows underneath in a thin layer.

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Sand Casting Defects: Scar and Blister

 Scar is shallow blow generally occurring on a flat surface. A

scar covered with a thin layer of metal is called blister.

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Sand Casting Defects: Rat tails

Rat tail is a long, shallow, angular depression caused by

expansion of the sand

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
Sand Casting Defects: Drop

 Drop is an irregularly-shaped projection on the cope

09/04/2021
surface caused by dropping of sand.

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Sand Casting Defects: Wash and swell

 Wash is a low projection near the gate caused by erosion of sand by

the flowing metal. Swell is the deformation of vertical mould surface

09/04/2021
due to hydrostatic pressure caused by moisture in the sand.

MILIND WASEKAR
09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
CLASSIFICATION OF CASTING DEFECTS
Casting defects
Surface Internal Defect Visible defects

09/04/2021
Defect

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Blow Blow holes Wash
Scar Porosity Rat tail
Blister Pin holes Swell
Drop Inclusions Misrun
Scab Dross Cold shut
Penetration Hot tear
Buckle Shrinkage/Shift
 SURFACE DEFECTS

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
 These are due to poor design and quality of sand molds and
general cause is poor ramming
 Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which displace
molten metal from convex surface. Scar is shallow blow generally
occurring on a flat surface. A scar covered with a thin layer of
metal is called blister. These are due to improper permeability or
venting. Sometimes excessive gas forming constituents in moulding
sand
 Drop is an irregularly-shaped projection on the cope surface caused by
dropping of sand.

09/04/2021
 A scab when an up heaved sand gets separated from the mould surface
and the molten metal flows between the displaced sand and the mold.
 Penetration occurs when the molten metal flows between the sand

MILIND WASEKAR
particles in the mould. These defects are due to inadequate strength of
the mold and high temperature of the molten metal adds on it.
 Buckle is a vee-shaped depression on the surface of a flat casting
caused by expansion of a thin layer of sand at the mould face. A proper
amount of volatile additives in moulding material could eliminate this
defect by providing room for expansion.
INTERNAL DEFECTS

09/04/2021
MILIND WASEKAR
 The internal defects found in the castings are mainly due to trapped
gases and dirty metal. Gases get trapped due to hard ramming or
improper venting. These defects also occur when excessive moisture
or excessive gas forming materials are used for mould making.
 Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas bubbles, while porosity
indicates a large number of uniformly distributed tiny holes. Pin
holes are tiny blow holes appearing just below the casting surface.
 Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal matrix, Lighter
impurities appearing the casting surface are dross.
 09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR
VISIBLE DEFECTS
 Insufficient mould strength, insufficient metal, low pouring
temperature, and bad design of casting are some of the common
causes.
 Wash is a low projection near the gate caused by erosion of sand by

09/04/2021
the flowing metal. Rat tail is a long, shallow, angular depression
caused by expansion of the sand. Swell is the deformation of vertical
mould surface due to hydrostatic pressure caused by moisture in the

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sand.
 Misrun and cold shut are caused by insufficient superheat provided to
the liquid metal.
 Hot tear is the crack in the casting caused by high residual stresses.
 Shrinkage is essentially solidification contraction and occurs due to
improper use of Riser.
 Shift is due to misalignment of two parts of the mould or incorrect
core location.
 INSPECTION OF CASTINGS

 Inspections may be in process inspections or finished product

09/04/2021
inspections.
 In process inspections are carried out before a lot of castings

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have been completed to detect any flaws that may have occurred
in the process so that corrective measures can be taken to remove
the defect in the remaining units.
 Finished product inspections are carried out after the castings
have all been completed to make sure that the product meets the
requirements specified by the customer.
 Two types of methods- destructive or non-destructive

 Destructive methods generally relate to sawing or breaking off of

parts of the castings at places where voids or internal defects are
suspected. Castings may also be damaged during strength tests.
 The prominent non destructive methods

VISUAL INSPECTION:

09/04/2021
 It consists of inspecting the surface
of the casting with naked eye or
sometimes with a magnifying glass

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or microscope.
 It can only indicate surface defects
such as blow holes, fusion, swells,
external cracks, and mismatch.
 Almost all castings are subjected to
certain degree of visual inspection.
DIMENSIONAL INSPECTION

09/04/2021
 Dimensional inspection is
carried out to make sure that
the castings produced have

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the required overall
dimensions including
allowances for machining.

 It may sometimes be
necessary to break a part of
the casting to take
measurements of inside
dimensions.
SOUND TEST

09/04/2021
 This is a rough test to indicate a flaw or discontinuity in a
casting.
 The casting is suspended from a suitable support free of all

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obstructions and tapped at various places on its surface with a
small hammer.
 Any change in the tone produced indicates the existence of a
flaw.
 The method cannot indicate the exact location and extent of
the discontinuity.
IMPACT TEST

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 In this test the casting is
subjected to a blow from a
hammer of known weight

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striking or falling on the
casting.
 Defective castings fail under
the impact of the blow but the
method is very crude and
unreliable.
PRESSURE TEST

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 This test is carried out on castings
required to be leak proof. All openings
of the castings are closed and a gas or

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fluid under pressure is introduced in it.
 Castings having porosity leak under
this pressure. The leakage may be
detected by submerging the casting in a
water tank or using a soap film if the
pressure is applied by compressed air.
 If a liquid is used for applying pressure
the leakage can be found by visual
inspection.
RADIOGRAPHY:

09/04/2021
 Radiography uses X-rays or
gamma rays penetrating through
the castings and giving a shadow

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picture on a photographic film
placed behind the work piece.
 Any defects in the casting can
easily be identified from this
picture.
 Because of their shorter wave
length gamma rays have a better
penetration through the metal and
are more commonly used.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING:

09/04/2021
 This test is used for detecting cracks in
metals like cast iron and steel which can
be magnetized.

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 For carrying out the test the casting is
magnetized and then fine particles of iron
or steel are spread on its surface.
 Presence of a crack or void in the casting
results in interruption of the magnetic field
and leakage of magnetic flux at the place
of the crack.
 Very small cracks or voids at or near the
surface which may not even be detected
by radiography are easily revealed by this
method.
PENETRANT TESTING:

09/04/2021
 This method also is used for detecting very
small surface cracks and has the advantage
over the magnetic particle method that it can

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be used for any material.
 The parts to be tested are either dipped into
or covered with a penetrant testing liquid
which has very good wetting and penetrating
ability.
 The liquid is drawn into the cracks or voids
by capillary action.

 After the penetrant has been applied to the

surface to be tested extra penetrant is wiped
off the surface is dried and a developer
applied to it.
ULTRASONIC TESTING:

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 Ultrasonic testing is used to detect defects like
cracks, voids or porosity within the interior of
the casting.

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 The method uses reflection and transmission of
high frequency sound waves.
 Ultrasonic sound waves much higher than the
audible range are produced and made to pass
through the casting.
 Any crack or void in the casting results in
reflection or some of the sound from the crack
which appears as a pip between the two pips
representing the thickness of the casting.
 The depth of the crack from the surface of the
casting can be easily calculated from the
distance between these pips.
09/04/2021 MILIND WASEKAR