KSRM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, KADAPA

BEST
UNIT-II
CIVIL ENGINEERING (VI SEM)
 UNIT-II
BJT: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) – Types of
Transistors, Operation of NPN and PNP
Transistors, Input-Output Characteristics of
BJT-CB, CE and CC Configurations, Relation
between IC, IB and IE. Transistor Biasing- Fixed
Bias, Voltage Divider Bias, Transistor
Applications-Transistor as an Amplifier,
Transistor as a Switch, Single Stage CE
Amplifier, Frequency Response of CE Amplifier.
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 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
• Introduction:
• A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three
terminal semiconductor device in which the
operation depends on the interaction of both
majority and minority carriers and hence the
name Bipolar.
• It is used in amplifier , Oscillator circuits and a
switch in digital circuits.
• It has wide applications in computers, satellites
and other modern communication systems.
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 TYPES OF TRANSISTORS
Emitter:It is more heavily
doped than any of the
other region , because its
main function is to supply
majority charge carriers to
the base .

Base: It forms the middle

Section of the transistor. It
is very thin as compared to
either the emitter or
collector and is very
lightly doped.

Collector: Its function is

to collect the majority
charge carriers coming
from the emitter and
passing through the base.
Transistor Symbols 4
structure of NPN transistor:

5
 Cont.,
Biased transistor:

6
Operation of PNP Transistor

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 Operation of NPN Transistor

The base-emitter junction is connected in the forward bias condition by

supply voltage VEE.
And the collector-base junction is connected in the reverse bias condition by
supply voltage VCC.
In forward bias condition, the negative terminal of supply source (V EE) is
connected to the N-type semiconductor (Emitter).
Similarly, in a reverse bias condition, the positive terminal of the supply source
(VCC) is connected to the N-type semiconductor (Collector).

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 Cont.,
• The depletion region of the emitter-base region is thin compared to the depletion region of
the collector-base junction (Note that the depletion region is a region where no mobile
charge carriers are present and it behaves like a barrier that opposes the flow of the
current).
• In N-type emitter, the majority charge carrier is electrons. Therefore, electrons start
flowing from N-type emitter to a P-type base. And because of electrons, the current will
start flowing the emitter-base junction. This current is known as emitter current IE.
• These electrons move further to the base. The base is a P-type semiconductor. Therefore, it
has holes. But the base region is very thin and lightly doped. So, it has a few holes to
recombine with the electrons. Hence, most of the electrons will pass the base region and
few of them will recombine with the holes.
• Because of the recombination, the current will flow through the circuit and this current is
known as base current IB. The base current is very small compared to the emitter current.
Typically, it is 2-5% of the total emitter current.

• Most of the electrons pass the depletion region of a collector-base junction and pass
through the collector region. The current flowing by the remaining electrons is known as
the collector current IC. The collector current is large compared to the base current.

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10
Mode of Operation of Transistor
Cut-off Mode
In cut-off mode, both junctions are in
reverse bias. In this mode, the transistor
behaves as an open circuit. And it will
not allow the current to flow through the
device.
Saturation Mode
In the saturation mode of a transistor,
both junctions are connected in forward
bias. The transistor behaves as a close
circuit and current flow from collector to
emitter when the base-emitter voltage is
high.
Active Mode
In this mode of a transistor, the base-
emitter junction is forward bias and
collector-base junction is reverse biased.
In this mode, the transistor operates as a
current amplifier.
The current flows between emitter and
collector and the amount of current are
proportional to the base current. 11
 Types of Transistor configurations
•  There are three different configurations of
transistors.
•  common base (CB) configuration
• common collector (CC) configuration
• common emitter (CE) configuration

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13
 Cont.,
• For the common base configuration to operate as an amplifier, the input
signal is applied to the emitter terminal and the output is taken from the
collector terminal. Thus the emitter current is also the input current, and
the collector current is also the output current.
• In common base configuration the input variables relate to the emitter
current IE and the base-emitter voltage, VBE, while the output variables
relate to the collector current IC and the collector-base voltage, VCB.
• Since the emitter current, IE is also the input current, any changes to the
input current will create a corresponding change in the collector current, IC.
• For a common base amplifier configuration, current gain, Ai is given
as iOUT/iIN which itself is determined by the formula IC/IE.
• The current gain for a CB configuration is called Alpha, ( α ).
• In a BJT amplifier the emitter current is always greater than the collector
current as IE = IB + IC, the current gain (α) of the amplifier must therefore
be less than one (unity) as IC is always less than IE by the value of IB. Thus
the CB amplifier attenuates the current, with typical values of alpha
ranging from between 0.980 to 0.995.
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 CB Configuration Characteristics

Input Output
Characteristics characteristics

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 Cont.,

Calculations from Graph:

• Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance,

find VEE and IE for a constant VCB on one of the input
characteristics.
• Input impedance  = hib = Ri = VEE  / IE (VCB  = constant)

• Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance,

find IC  and VCB  at a constant IE.
• Output admittance = hob = 1/Ro = IC / VCB  (IE = constant)
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Common Emitter Configuration

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 Cont.,
• In this configuration we use emitter as common terminal for both input and output.
• This common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. Here the input
is applied between base-emitter region and the output is taken between collector
and emitter terminals.
• In this configuration the input parameters are V BE and IB and the output parameters
are VCE and IC.
• This type of configuration is mostly used in the applications of transistor based
amplifiers.
• In this configuration the emitter current is equal to the sum of small base current
and the large collector current. i.e. IE  = IC + IB.
• We know that the ratio between collector current and emitter current gives current
gain alpha in Common Base configuration similarly the ratio between collector
current and base current gives the current gain beta in common emitter
configuration.

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 Cont.,
• Relationship between these two current gains.
• Current gain (α) = IC/IE

• Current gain (β) = IC/IB

• Collector current IC =α IE = βIB

• This configuration is mostly used one among all the

three configurations. It has medium input and output
impedance values. It also has the medium current and
voltage gains. But the output signal has a phase shift
of 180 degrees i.e. both the input and output are
inverse to each other.
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 CE Characteristics

Input Characteristics

Output
Characterics

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 Calculations from Graph

Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance

find VBE and IB for a constant VCE on one of the input
characteristics.
• Input impedance = hie = Ri = VBE / IB (VCE is constant)

Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance

find IC and VCB at a constant IB.
• Output admittance 1/hoe = Ro = IC / VCE  (IB is constant)

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Common Collector Configuration

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 Cont.,
• In this configuration we use collector terminal as common for both input and output signals.
This configuration is also known as emitter follower configuration because the emitter
voltage follows the base voltage. This configuration is mostly used as a buffer. These
configurations are widely used in impedance matching applications because of their high
input impedance.
• In this configuration the input signal is applied between the base-collector region and the
output is taken from the emitter-collector region. Here the input parameters are V BC and IB
and the output parameters are VEC and IE.
• The common collector configuration has high input impedance and low output impedance. T
• he input and output signals are in phase. Here also the emitter current is equal to the sum of
collector current and the base current. Now let us calculate the current gain for this
configuration.
• Current gain,
• Ai = output current/Input current
•                         Ai = IE/IB
•                         Ai = (IC + IB)/IB
•                         Ai = (IC/IB) + 1
•                          Ai = β + 1
• This common collector configuration is a non inverting amplifier circuit. The voltage gain for
this circuit is less than unity but it has large current gain because the load resistor in this
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circuit receives both the collector and base currents.
Characteristics of CC Configuration

VEC = VEB + VBC

VEB = VEC – VBC

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Comparison of CB,CE,CC Configurations

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 Transistor Biasing
• INTRODUCTION: Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps
in the functioning of the circuit. A transistor is biased in order to make the
emitter base junction forward biased and collector base junction reverse
biased, so that it maintains in active region, to work as an amplifier.
Transistor Biasing
• The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of
proper collector emitter voltage during the passage of signal is known
as Transistor Biasing. The circuit which provides transistor biasing is called
as Biasing Circuit.
• Need for DC biasing
• If a signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BJT, it cannot be
amplified. Because, for a BJT, to amplify a signal, two conditions have to be
met.
• The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor to be ON.
• The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as an amplifier.
• If appropriate DC voltages and currents are given through BJT by external
sources, so that BJT operates in active region and superimpose the AC
signals to be amplified, then this problem can be avoided. The given DC
voltage and currents are so chosen that the transistor remains in active
region for entire input AC cycle. Hence DC biasing is needed. 26
 Cont.,
Factors affecting the operating point
• The main factor that affect the operating point is the
temperature. The operating point shifts due to change in
temperature.
• As temperature increases, the values of ICE, β, VBE gets affected.
• ICBO gets doubled (for every 10o rise)
• VBE decreases by 2.5mv (for every 1o rise)

• So the main problem which affects the operating point is

temperature. Hence operating point should be made
independent of the temperature so as to achieve stability. To
achieve this, biasing circuits are introduced.
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 Cont.,
• Temperature Dependence of IC
• As the expression for collector current IC is
• IC=βIB+ICEO
• =βIB+(β+1)ICBO=βIB+(β+1)ICBO
• The collector leakage current ICBO is greatly influenced
by temperature variations. To come out of this, the
biasing conditions are set so that zero signal collector
current IC = 1 mA. Therefore, the operating point needs
to be stabilized i.e. it is necessary to keep IC constant.

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 Operating point in transistor
When a line is drawn joining the saturation and cut off points, such a line can be called
as Load line. This line, when drawn over the output characteristic curve, makes contact
at a point called as Operating point.
This operating point is also called as quiescent point or simply Q-point. There can be
many such intersecting points, but the Q-point is selected in such a way that irrespective
of AC signal swing, the transistor remains in the active region.

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Faithfull amplification

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Cont.,

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Cont.,

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 Fixed Bias (or) Base Resistor method
The biasing in transistor circuits is done by using two DC sources V  and V . It is
BB CC
economical to minimize the DC source to one supply instead of two which also makes
the circuit simple.
In this method, a resistor RB of high resistance is connected in base, as the name implies.
The required zero signal base current is provided by VCC which flows through RB. The
base emitter junction is forward biased, as base is positive with respect to emitter.
The required value of zero signal base current and hence the collector current (as I C =
βIB) can be made to flow by selecting the proper value of base resistor RB. Hence the
value of RB is to be known

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 Cont.,

We know that VCC is a fixed known quantity and IB is chosen at some suitable
value. As RB can be found directly, this method is called as fixed bias method.
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Advantages
The circuit is simple.
Only one resistor RE is required.
Biasing conditions are set easily.
No loading effect as no resistor is present at base-emitter junction.
Disadvantages
The stabilization is poor as heat development can’t be stopped.
The stability factor is very high. So, there are strong chances of thermal run away.
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Hence, this method is rarely employed.
 Voltage Divider Bias
 In the voltage divider bias method is the most prominent one. Here, two resistors R1 and
R2 are employed, which are connected to VCC and provide biasing. The resistor RE employed
in the emitter provides stabilization.
The name voltage divider comes from the voltage divider formed by R1 and R2. The voltage
drop across R2 forward biases the base-emitter junction. This causes the base current and
hence collector current flow in the zero signal conditions. The figure below shows the circuit
of voltage divider bias method.

Suppose that the current

flowing through resistance R1 is
I1. As base current IB is very
small, therefore, it can be
assumed with reasonable
accuracy that current flowing
through R2 is also I1.

Now let us try to derive the

expressions for collector 36
Cont.,
From the above
expression, it is evident
that IC doesn’t depend
upon β. VBE is very
small that IC doesn’t
get affected by VBE at
all. Thus IC in this circuit
is almost independent
of transistor
parameters and hence
good stabilization is
achieved.

37
Cont.,

Suppose there is a rise in

temperature, then the
collector current
IC decreases, which
causes the voltage drop
across RE to increase. As
the voltage drop across
R2 is V2, which is
independent of IC, the
value of VBE decreases.
The reduced value of
IB tends to restore IC to
the original value.

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Cont.,

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 Transistor Applications
• Transistor as an Amplifier
• Transistor as a Switch

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 Transistor as an Amplifier

The transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and hence acts an

amplifier. The transistor amplifier circuit is shown in the figure below.
The transistor has three terminals namely emitter, base and collector.
The emitter and base of the transistor are connected in forward biased
and the collector base region is in reverse bias. The forward bias means
the P-region of the transistor is connected to the positive terminal of the
supply and the negative region is connected to the N-terminal and in
reverse bias just opposite of it has occurred.
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 Cont.,
• The input signal or weak signal is applied across the emitter base and the
output is obtained to the load resistor R C  which is connected in the collector
circuit. The DC voltage VEE is applied to the input circuit along with the input
signal to achieve the amplification. The DC voltage V EE keeps the emitter-base
junction under the forward biased condition regardless of the polarity of the
input signal and is known as a bias voltage.

• When a weak signal is applied to the input, a small change in signal voltage
causes a change in emitter current (or we can say a change of 0.1V in signal
voltage causes a change of 1mA in the emitter current) because the input circuit
has very low resistance. This change is almost the same in collector current
because of the transmitter action.

• In the collector circuit, a load resistor RC of high value is connected. When
collector current flows through such a high resistance, it produces a large
voltage drop across it. Thus, a weak signal (0.1V) applied to the input circuit
appears in the amplified form (10V) in the collector circuit.
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 Transistor act as Switch
• A transistor is used for switching operation for
opening or closing of a circuit. This type solid
state switching offers significant reliability and
lower cost as compared with conventional relays.
• Both NPN and PNP transistors can be used as
switches. Some of the applications use a power
transistor as switching device, at that time it may
necessary to use another signal level transistor to
drive the high power transistor.

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Cont.,

44
 Saturation Mode

In this mode of operation, both the emitter base and collector base junctions
are  forward biased. Current flows freely from collector to emitter when the
base-emitter voltage is high. In this mode device is fully switched ON.

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 NPN Transistor as a Switch

Based on the voltage applied at the base terminal of a transistor switching operation is
performed. When a sufficient voltage  (Vin > 0.7 V) is applied between the base and
emitter, collector to emitter voltage is approximately equal to 0. Therefore, the
transistor acts as a short circuit. The collector current Vcc/Rc flows through the transistor.
Similarly, when no voltage or zero voltage is applied at the input, transistor operates in
cutoff region and acts as an open circuit. In this type of switching connection, load (here
LED lamp) is connected to the switching output with a reference point. Thus, when the
transistor is switched ON, current will flow from source to ground through the load.
46
Example of NPN Transistor as a Switch

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 Cont.,
• Ic = Vcc/Rc when VCE = 0
• Ic = 5V/0.7k ohm
• Ic = 7.1 mA
• Base Current Ib = Ic / β
• Ib = 7.1 mA/125
• Ib = 56.8 µA
• From the above calculations, the maximum or peak value of the collector current in the circuit is 7.1mA when Vce is equal
to zero. And the correspond base current to which collector current flows is 56.8µA. So, it is clear that when the base
current is increased beyond the 56.8 micro ampere then the transistor comes into the saturation mode.
• Consider the case when zero volt is applied at the input. This causes the base current zero and as the emitter is grounded,
emitter base junction is not forward biased. Therefore, the transistor is in OFF condition and the collector output voltage is
equal to 5V.
• When Vi = 0V, Ib = 0 and Ic =0,
• Vc = Vcc – (IcRc)
• = 5V – 0
• = 5V
• Consider that input voltage applied is 5 volts, then the base current can be determined by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
• When Vi = 5V
• Ib = (Vi – Vbe) / Rb
• For silicon transistor Vbe = 0.7 V
• Thus, Ib = (5V – 0.7V)/ 50K ohm
• = 86 µA which is greater than 56.8 µA
• Therefore the base current is greater than 56.8 micro ampere current, the transistor will be driven to saturation that is fully
ON when 5V is applied at the input. Thus the output at the collector becomes approximately zero.

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 Common Emitter Amplifier
The Amplifier is an electronic circuit that is used to increase the strength of a
weak input signal in terms of voltage, current, or power.
The process of increasing the strength of a weak signal is known as
Amplification.
One most important constraint during the amplification is that only the
magnitude of the signal should increase and there should be no changes in
original signal shape.

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 Working of Common Emitter Amplifier

•  it consists of voltage divider biasing, used to supply the base bias voltage as per the
necessity. The voltage divider biasing has a potential divider with two resistors are connected
in a way that the midpoint is used for supplying base bias voltage.
• There are different types of electronic components in the common emitter amplifier which
are R1 resistor is used for the forward bias, the R2 resistor is used for the development of
bias, the RL resistor is used at the output it is called as the load resistance. The R E resistor is
used for thermal stability. The C1 capacitor is used to separate the AC signals from the DC
biasing voltage and the capacitor is known as the coupling capacitor.

● The figure shows that the bias vs gain common emitter amplifier transistor
characteristics if the R2 resistor increases then there is an increase in the forward
bias and R1 & bias are inversely proportional to each other. The alternating current is
applied to the base of the transistor of the common emitter amplifier circuit then
there is a flow of small base current. Hence there is a large amount of current flow
through the collector with the help of the RC resistance. The voltage near the
resistance RC will change because the value is very high and the values are from the
4 to 10 Kohm. Hence there is a huge amount of current present in the collector
circuit which amplified from the weak signal, therefore common emitter transistor 50
work as an amplifier circuit.
 Cont.,

Characteristics of Common Emitter Amplifier

• The voltage gain of a common emitter amplifier is medium
• The power gain is high in the common emitter amplifier
• There is a phase relationship of 180 degrees in input and output

• Applications of Common Emitter Amplifier

• The common emitter amplifiers are used in the low-frequency voltage amplifiers.
• These amplifiers are used typically in the RF circuits.
• In general, the amplifiers are used in the Low noise amplifiers

• Advantages of Common Emitter Amplifier

• The common emitter amplifier has a low input impedance and it is an inverting
amplifier
• The output impedance of this amplifier is high
• This amplifier has the highest power gain when combined with medium voltage and
current gain
• The current gain of the common emitter amplifier is high 51
Frequency Response of CE Amplifier

Input and Output Wave forms

Circuit Diagram

52
Frequency Response Curve

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UNIT-2 COMPLETED

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