ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS &

INSTRUMENTATION
 Terminology

• Calibration – the process of

adjusting the output or
indication on a measurement
instrument to agree with value
of the applied standard, within
a specified accuracy

• Measurement – set of operations having the object of

determining a value of a quantity
2
 Terminology
• Error - difference between actual behavior or measurement

• Measurand - defined by a
particular method of measurement
and indicate what that method is
(i.e erosion volumetric)

• Metrology – science of
measurement

• National standard – standard Transformer Information Plate

recognized by a national decision
(i.e SIRIM, EU for UK)
3
 Terminology
(the study of terms and their use )

• Nominal value – approximate

value of instr. that provides a
guide to its use

• Repeatability – the closeness of

agreement between successive
measurements carried out under
the same conditions

4
 Terminology
• Resolution – The smallest change in a measured variable to
which an instrument will respond

5
 Terminology
(the study of terms and their use )

• Stability – ability of equip. to maintain constant its metrological

characteristic

6
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Terminology
• Inspection – involves measurement, investigation, testing in order
to fulfilled requirement

• Quality – relates to all characteristic that meet requirement/need

• Reference – established quantity/entity/theory for comparison

• Trueness – the closeness agreement between test result and

reference

• Verification – investigation that specified requirements fulfilled

7
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Units

• of measurement define the definite magnitude of physical

quantity which adopt convention and law.
Eg. Unit for physical quantity length is metre

•The International System of units (SI unit) is a form of

metric sys. & divided in 3 classes
• base units
• derived units
• supplementary units

8
Units

9
 Units (SI)
Principles of the SI system

• SI stands for Systéme International d’Unités, i.e. the International System

of Units. SI is the abbreviation used in all languages to indicate the system.

•The SI is constructed from seven base units, which are defined in physical
terms.

•By combining these units in accordance with simple geometrical and

physical laws, we can arrive at the derived units.

•In principle, the SI covers all application areas, although certain units
outside SI are so useful that they are accepted for general use together with
the SI (e.g degree, hour, day, minute)
10
 Units

SI units – base unit

• fundamental unit refers to quantity

NAME SYMBOL QUANTITY

Kilogram kg Mass
Second s Time
Meter m Length
Ampere A Electrical current
Kelvin K Temperature
Mole mol Amount of substance
Candela cd Luminous intensity

11
 Units

SI units – derived unit

• derivation/further ext./combination . unit of base unit
Derived quantity Derived unit Symbol
Area Square meter m2
Volume Cubic meter m3
Speed, velocity Meter per second m∙s-1
Acceleration Meter per second square m∙s-2
Angular velocity Radian per second rad∙s-1
Angular acceleration Radian per second square rad∙s-2

Density Kilogram per cubic meter Kg∙m-3

Magnetic field intensity, Ampere per meter A∙m-1
(Linear current density)

12
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Units
SI units – derived unit
• derivation/further ext./combination . unit of base unit
Derived quantity Derived unit operations of Symbol
by means of the mathematical
Current density Ampere per square metre
multiplication and division. A∙m-2
Moment of force Newton metre N∙m3
Electric field strength Volt per metre V∙m-1
Permeability Henry per metre H∙m-1
Permittivity Farad per metre F∙m-1
Specific heat capacity Joule per kilogram J∙kg-1∙K-1

Amount-of-substance Mol per cubic metre mol∙m-3

concentration
luminance Candela per square metre cd∙m-2

13
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Units
SI units – derived unit
• derivation/further ext./combination . unit of base unit
Derived quantity SI derived unit Symbol In SI In SI base units
name units
Frequency Hertz Hz s-1
Force Newton N m∙kg∙s-2
Pressure, stress Pascal Pa N∙m-2 m-1 ∙kg ∙s-2
Energy, work, quantity of Joule J N∙m m2 ∙kg ∙s-2
heat
Power, radiant flux Watt W J/s m2 ∙kg ∙s-3
Electric charge, quantity of Coulomb C s∙ A
electricity
Electric potential Volt V W/A m2 ∙kg ∙s-3 ∙ A-1
difference, emf
Electric capacitance farad F C/V m-2 ∙kg-1∙s4 ∙ A2
Electric resistance ohm V/A m2 ∙kg ∙s-3 ∙ A-2
Electric conductance Siemens S A/V m-2 ∙kg-1 ∙s3 ∙ A2

14
 Units
Derived quantity SI derived unit Symbol In SI In SI base units
name units
Magnetic flux Weber Wb V∙S m2 ∙kg ∙s-2 ∙ A-1
Magnetic induction, tesla T Wb/m2 kg ∙s-2 ∙ A-1
magnetic flux density
Inductance Henry H Wb/A m2 ∙kg ∙s-2 ∙ A-2
Luminous flux Lumen lm Cd ∙sr m2 ∙m-2 ∙cd=cd
illuminance Lux lx Lm/m2 m2 ∙m-4 ∙cd=m-2 ∙cd
Radioactivity (of a becquerel Bq s-1
radionuclide)
Absorbed dose, kerma, gray Gy J/kg m2 ∙s-2
specific energy
Dose equivalent Sievert Sv J/kg m2 ∙s-2
Plane angle Radian rad m1 ∙m-1 =1
Solid angle Steradian sr m2 ∙m-2 =1
Catalytic activity katal kat s-1 ∙ mol

15
 Units

Derived quantity SI derived unit name Symbol In SI base units

Dynamic viscosity Pascal second Pa∙s m-1 ∙kg ∙s-1
Moment of force Newton metre N∙m m2∙kg ∙s-2
Surface tension Newton per metre N/m kg ∙s-2
Angular velocity Radian per second rad/s m1 ∙m-1 ∙s-1 = s-1
Angular acceleration Radian per second rad/s2 m ∙m-1 ∙s-2 = s-2
squared
Heat flux density Watt per square metre w/m2 kg ∙s-3
Permittivity Farad per metre F/m m-3 ∙kg-1 ∙s4 ∙A2
Permeability Henry per metre H/m m ∙kg ∙s-2 ∙A-2
Molar energy Joule per mole J/mol m2 ∙kg ∙s-2 ∙mol-1
Molar entropy, molar Joule per mole kelvin J/(mol∙K) m2 ∙kg ∙s-2 ∙K-1∙mol-1
heat capacity
Exposure (and rays) Coulomb per kilogram C/kg kg -1∙s ∙ A
Absorbed dose rate Gray per second Gy/s m2 ∙s-3

16
 Units
Derived quantity SI derived unit name Symbol In SI base units
Radiant intensity Gray per second W/sr m2 ∙s-3
radiance Watt per steradian W/(m2 ∙ sr) m2∙ m-2 ∙ kg ∙ s-3 = kg ∙ s-
3

Catalytic (activity) Katal per cubic metre kat/m3 m-3 ∙s-1 ∙mol
concentration
Heat capacity, entropy Joule per kelvin J/K m2 ∙ kg ∙ s-2 ∙ K-1
Specific heat capacity, Joule per kilogram J/(kg ∙ K) m2 ∙ s-2 ∙ K-1
specific entropy Kelvin
Specific energy J/kg m2 ∙ s-2
Thermal conductivity Watt per metre kelvin W/(m ∙ K) m ∙ kg ∙ s-3 ∙ K-1
Energy density Joule per cubic metre J/m3 m-1∙ kg ∙ s-2
Electric field strength Volt per metre V/m m∙ kg ∙ s-2
Electric charge density Coulomb per cubic C/m3 m-3 ∙s ∙A
metre
Electric flux density Coulomb per square C/m2 m-2 ∙s ∙A
metre

17
 Units

SI units – supplementary unit

• unit outside of SI but accepted
Quantity Unit Symbol Value in SI units
Time Minute, hour, day Min, h, d 1 min = 60 s
1 h = 60 min = 3600s
1 day = 24 h = 1440 min =
86400 s
Plane angle Degree, minute, ̊ ’ ” gon 1 ̊ = (π/180) rad
second, grad 1’ = (1/60)’ = (π/10 800) rad
1” = (1/60)” (π/648 000) rad
1 gon = (π/200) rad ;
400 gon = 360 ̊
Volume litre l, L 1 l = 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3
Mass Metric tonne t 1 t = 103 kg
Pressure in air, fluid bar bar 1 bar = 105 Pa

18
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Units

SI units – SI Prefix (for decimal multiple or submultiple - exponent

10 n Prefix Sym Short scale Long scale Decimal equivalent
1024 yotta Y septillion Quadrillion 1 000 000 000 000 000
000 000 000
1021 zetta Z sextillion Trilliard (thousand 1 000 000 000 000 000
trillion) 000 000
1018 exa E Quintillion Trillion 1 000 000 000 000 000
000
1015 peta P Quadrillion Billiard (thousand 1 000 000 000 000 000
billion)
1012 tera T Trillion Billion 1 000 000 000 000
109 giga G Billion Milliard (thousand 1 000 000 000
million)
106 mega M Million 1 000 000
103 kilo k Thousand 1 000
102 hecto h Hundred 100
101 deca da Ten 10

19
 Units

SI units – SI Prefix (for decimal multiple or submultiple)

10 n Prefix Sym Short scale Long scale Decimal equivalent
100 none none one 1
10-1 Deci d tenth 0.1
10-2 centi c hundredth 0.01
10-3 milli m thousandth 0.001
10-6 micro µ millionth 0.000 001
10-9 nano n Billionth Milliardth 0.000 000 001
10-12 pico p Trillionth Billionth 0.000 000 000 001
10-15 temto f Quadrilliont Billiardth 0.000 000 000 000 001
10-18 atto a Quintillionth Trillionth 0.000 000 000 000 000 001
10-21 zapto z Sextillionth trilliardth 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001
10-24 yocto y septillionth quadrillionth 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000
0001

20
 Dimension

• parameter or measurement used

to describe some relevant
characteristic of an object.

•dimensions is describing the size

or spatial characteristic of an
object: length, width, and height

• also for other physical parameters

such as the mass and electric 3-Dimension of gear system
charge of an object

21
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Dimension
Dimension of Physical Quantities

•Uses symbol M (mass), L (length), T (time) –known as mech. unit,

Q (e’ charge), I - or A (current)

•A derived unit of physical quantity

•Example 1;
- Dimension of physical quantity SPEED is L/T (or in units m/s,
km/h, mph)

QUANTITY UNIT DIMENSION

SPEED m/s L/T

22
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Dimension
• Dimension of a physical quantity is the total of
all units attached to it.
– For example, speed is given as distance x time;
metres/second (m/s) MKS and
centimetres/second (cm/s) in CGS system.
– Dimension of measurement of speed ,
[v] = [L]/[T]

23
 Dimension

Dimension of Physical Quantities

•Example 2;

Velocity = length/time
[v] = [L]/[T] = [LT-1]

Acceleration = velocity/time
[a] = [v]/[T] = [LT-1]/[T1] = [LT-2]

Force = mass × acceleration

[F] = [M] • [LT-2] = [MLT-2]

24
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 CGS Unit System

• CGS (centimeter-gram-second) is a
physical unit (similar to mech. Units)

• to include electric variants;

• Electromagnetic unit – mass,
length, time & permeability ()
• Electrostatic unit – mass, length,
time & permittivity ()

25
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Dimension Equa. – E.S.U Dim.

• E.S.U – Electrostatic unit

Electrostatic units (cgs-esu) are defined in a way that simplifies the description of
interactions between static electric charges; there are no corresponding magnetic
units in this system.

a) Charge - Based on Coulomb’s law, the force

between two charges, Q1 and Q2 is F = Q1Q2/εd2
where d = distance between two charge Q1 and Q2.

[MLT-2] = [Q2] / [ε.L2]

Dimension for charge, [Q] = ([MLT-2] [ε.L2] )1/2
[Q] = ([M1/2L3/2T-1] [ε1/2] )

ε = 1/(4π ε0) ; ε0 = 8.854187817×10−12 F·m−1

Coulomb constant = 8.9875 109 N·m2 ·C-2
26
 Dimension Equa. – E.S.U Dim.

• E.S.U – Electrostatic unit

b) Current
[I] = [Q]/[T] = [ε1/2M1/2L3/2T-1]/[T]
[I] = [ε1/2M1/2L3/2T-2]

c) e.m.f. (electromotive force) or potential difference

[E] = [W]/[Q]
[E] = [ML2T-2]/[ε1/2M1/2L3/2T-1]
[E] = [ε-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1]

W = work (Joule)

27
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Dimension Equa. – E.S.U Dim.

• E.S.U – Electrostatic unit

d) Capacitance, C
C =Q/E
[C] = [Q] / [E] = [ε1/2M1/2L3/2T-1] / [ε-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1]
[C] = [εL]

e) Resistance, R
[R] = [E]/ [ I ]
[R] = [ε-1/2M1/2L1/2T-1] / [ε1/2M1/2L3/2T-2]
[R] = [ε-1L-1T]

28
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Dimension Equa. – E.S.U Dim.

f) Inductance, L

E
L
 dI 
 
 dt 
E [ 1/ 2 M 1/ 2 L1/ 2T 1 ][T ]
[ L]     1 1  2
L T
[ I ] /[T ] [ M L T ]
1/ 2 1/ 2 3 / 2  2

29
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Dimension Equa. – E.M.U Dim.
• E.M.U – Electromagnetic unit
• Electromagnetic units (cgs-emu) are defined especially for the
description of phenomena associated with moving electric charges,
i.e., electric currents and magnetic poles.

a) Pole strength

m1m2
Force  F 
d 2
2
2 [ m ]
[ MLT ] 
[  ][ L2 ]
[ m]  MLT  2 L2  [ M 1/ 2 L3 / 2T 1 1/ 2 ]

30
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Dimension Equa. – E.M.U Dim.

b) Magnetic force, H

[F ] [ MLT 2 ]
[H ]   1/ 2 1/ 2 3 / 2 1  [  1/ 2 M 1/ 2 L1/ 2T 1 ]
[ m] [  M L T ]

c) Current d) Charge
2 I
H  Charge  current  time
r
[I ] [Q ]  [ I ][T ]
[ 1 / 2
M 1/ 2
L 1 / 2
T ] 1

[ L] [Q ]  [  1/ 2 M 1/ 2 L1/ 2T 1 ][T ]

[ I ]  [ 1 / 2
M 1/ 2 1/ 2
L T ] 1 [Q ]  [  1/ 2 M 1/ 2 L1/ 2 ]

31
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Dimension Equa. – E.M.U Dim.

• E.M.U – Electromagnetic unit

e) Potential voltage / Potential difference

Potential voltage = work/charge

[W ] [ ML2T 2 ]
[E]    [  1/ 2
M 1/ 2 3 / 2  2
L T ]
[Q ] [  1 / 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
M L ]

f) Capacitance, C
[Q ]
[C ] 
[E]
[  1/ 2 M 1/ 2 L1/ 2 ]
[C ]  1/ 2 1/ 2 3 / 2  2  [  1 L1T 2 ]
[ M L T ]
32
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 Dimension Equa. – E.M.U Dim.

g) Resistance, R
[E]
[ R] 
[I ]
[  1/ 2 M 1/ 2 L3 / 2T  2 ]
[ R]   [ LT 1
]
[ 1 / 2 1 / 2 1 / 2 1
M L T ]
h) Inductance, L
E
L
dI / dt
[E] [ E ] /[T ]
[ L]  
[ I ] /[T ] [I ]
[  1/ 2 M 1/ 2 L3 / 2T  2 ][T ]
[ L]   [ L]
[ 1 / 2 1 / 2 1 / 2 1
M L T ]
33
INSTRUMENT & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT - Metrology
 RESULT / DATA ANALYSIS
Definition

Data:
• refers to a collection of organized information,

• results of experience, observation or experiment, or a set of

premises

• consist of numbers, words, or images, particularly as measurements

or observations of a set of variables

Data analysis:
• process of looking at and summarizing data with the intent to extract
useful information and develop conclusions
34
 Data of a result of measurement can be classified:

a) Qualitative Data - descriptive, wording, non-numbers

- the iron is red hot
- the fuse blow when the switch turned ‘on’

b) Quantitative Data - numerical value of the data

- the iron temperature is at 1000C
- the fuse blew when 5A current flow

Data analysis to include:

• error • precision
• uncertainty • deviation
• accuracy

35
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Error

• refers to a difference between

actual behavior or measurement &
the norms or expectations for the
behavior or measurement

• classify into 3 categories

- gross (human)
- systematic
- random

36
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Gross / Human error

• undetected mistakes that cause a measurement to be

very much farther from the mean measurement than
other measurements

• example: reading digital & analog meter by human

- digital shows value of measurement
- analog show value of measurement but range selection
must be correct

37
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Gross / Human error due to:

• misreading instruments

• mistakes in calculation

• improper application of
equipment

• incorrect adjustment

• neglecting loading effects

38
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Systematic error (error in measurement)

• is any biasing effect,

in the environment,
methods of observation
or instruments used,
which introduces error
into an experiment and
is such that it always
affects the results of an
experiment in the same direction

• categorized by Instrumentation error & Environmental error

39
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Systematic error (error in measurement)
Instrumentation Errors
• Friction in moving parts
• Faulty or non-linear components
• Out of Calibration equipment
• Faulty equipment

Estimation:
•Comparison with a known standard
•Application of correction factors

Reduced/ avoided by:

•Calibrating instruments
•Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement
•Inspecting equipment for faulty operation or defective parts
•Using more than one method for high accuracy measurement

40
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Systematic error (error in measurement)

Environmental Errors
1. Due to external conditions to the measurement system:
- Temperature
- Pressure
- Humidity
- Magnetic fields
2. Can be detected by careful monitoring of measured values
and environmental conditions.

3. Can be minimized or eliminated by controlling the

environment conditions:
- Air conditioning
- Shielding
- Sealing

41
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Random error

• Deviations from the "true value" can be equally likely to be

higher or lower than the true value

• factors that randomly

affect measurement

• For instance, each

person's mood can
inflate or deflate their
performance on any
occasion
42
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Random error

-Unexplainable and random in occurrence.

-Many readings need to be taken and statistical techniques are
applied to obtain the best estimate of the true quantity
Error , E  xmeasured  xtrue
 xmeasured  xtrue 
% Error    100%
 xtrue 
-Where
i. E= the measurement error
ii. Xmeasured = the value obtained by a measurement
iii. Xtrue = the value obtained by a measurement

43
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
Absolute & Relative Error

Absolute error

• is the amount of physical

error in a measurement

• for instance, say a meter

stick is used to measure a given distance, error is ±1mm, the
given error of the measurement is the absolute error

• The actual error in a quantity, having the same units as the

quantity. Thus if c = (2.95 ± 0.07) m/s, the absolute error is 0.07
m/s.
44
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Absolute & Relative Error

Relative error

• the ratio of absolute error to the average, may also be called

percentage error or fractional uncertainty

• gives an indication of how good a measurement is relative to

the size of the thing being measured

• Let’s say that 2 students measure 2 objects with a meter Stick

• One student measures the height of a room and gets a value
of 3.215 meters ±1mm (0.001m)
• Another student measures the height of a small cylinder and
measures 0.075 meters ±1mm (0.001m)
45
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Absolute & Relative Error

Relative error

46
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Absolute & Relative Error
• Example 2

A resistor labeled as 240 Ω is

actually 243.32753 Ω. What are
the absolute, eabs and
relative, erel errors of the labeled
value?

eabs = |240 - 243.32753| ≈ 3.3 Ω

erel = |240 - 243.32753|/|243.32753| ≈ 0.014

47
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 Uncertainty: accuracy & precision

48
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 RESULT / DATA ANALYSIS: Chapter 5
Uncertainty: accuracy & precision

49
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A
 RESULT / DATA ANALYSIS: Chapter 5
Uncertainty: accuracy, precision, deviation

50
INSTRUMENTATION & ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT – R/D A