Measuring instrument

A device used to
• inspect,
• measure,
• test, or
• examine parts
in order to determine compliance with
required specifications.
 Requirements
A measuring instrument must meet the essential requirements laid down in
Annex I, applicable to all instrument types, and in the relevant instrument-
specific Annex of the Directive. The general requirements cover the following
aspects;
• Allowable errors (including specifications of the intended climatic, mechanical
and electromagnetic environment the instrument has been designed for)
• Reproducability
• Repeatability
• Discrimination and Sensitivity
• Durability
• Reliability
• Suitability
• Protection against corruption
• Information to be borne by and accompany the instrument
• Indication of result
• Further processing of data to conclude the trading transaction
Multimeter and panel type voltmeter[AC]
LINEAR MEASUREMENT TAPE &
PRESSURE GAUGE
 Moving-iron instruments
Moving-iron instruments are generally used to measure
alternating voltages and currents. In moving-iron
instruments the movable system consists of one or more
pieces of specially-shaped soft iron, which are so pivoted
as to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by
the current in coil.
• There are two general types of moving-iron
instruments namely:
• 1. Repulsion (or double iron)
• 2. Attraction (or single-iron)
Construction and basic principle operation of
moving-iron instruments
Repulsion type MI instrument
 Different Components Of A Moving-iron
Instrument
• The brief description of different components of a moving-iron
instrument is given below:
• Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod.
• Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and
also to magnetize the iron pieces.
• In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized with
the same polarity.
• Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity).
• Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device consisting
of an air chamber and a moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.
• Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a
graduated scale.
 How it works?

• Typical scheme of measuring el. current and voltage

• The deflecting torque in any moving-iron instrument is due to forces on a small
piece of magnetically ‘soft’ iron that is magnetized by a coil carrying the
operating current. In repulsion type moving–iron instrument consists of two
cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted within a fixed current-carrying coil. One iron
vane is held fixed to the coil frame and other is free to rotate, carrying with it the
pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the magnetic field produced by the coil that consists
of only few turns if the instrument is an ammeter or of many turns if the instrument
is a voltmeter.
• Current in the coil induces both vanes to become magnetized and repulsion
between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a proportional rotation. The
deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current in the coil, making the
instrument reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity Rotation is opposed by a hairspring
that produces the restoring torque. Only the fixed coil carries load current, and it is
constructed so as to withstand high transient current.
• Moving iron instruments having scales that are nonlinear and somewhat crowded in
the lower range of calibration.
 Measurement of Electric Voltage and Current

• Moving iron instruments are used as Voltmeter and Ammeter only.

• Both can work on AC as well as on DC.
Ammeter
• Instrument used to measure current in the circuit.
• Always connected in series with the circuit and carries the current to be
measured.
• This current flowing through the coil produces the desired deflecting
torque.
• It should have low resistance as it is to be connected in series.
Voltmeter
• Instrument used to measure voltage between two points in a circuit.
• Always connected in parallel.
• Current flowing through the operating coil of the meter produces
deflecting torque.
• It should have high resistance. Thus a high resistance of order of kilo ohms
is connected in series with the coil of the instrument.
 Ranges of Ammeter and Voltmeter

• For a given moving-iron instrument the ampere-

turns necessary to produce full-scale deflection
are constant.
• One can alter the range of ammeters by
providing a shunt coil with the moving coil.
• Voltmeter range may be altered connecting a
resistance in series with the coil. Hence the
same coil winding specification may be
employed for a number of ranges.
 Advantages

• The instruments are suitable for use in AC and DC

circuits.
• The instruments are robust, owing to the simple
construction of the moving parts.
• The stationary parts of the instruments are also
simple.
• Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil
instrument.
• Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.
 Errors

• Error due to variation in temperature.

• Error due to friction is quite small as torque-weight ratio is
high in moving coil instruments.
• Stray fields cause relatively low values of magnetizing force
produced by the coil. Efficient magnetic screening is essential
to reduce this effect.
• Error due to variation of frequency causes change of reactance
of the coil and also changes the eddy currents induced in
neighbouring metal.
• Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of
the current due to non-linear characteristics of iron material.
• The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power
(or the supply rate of electrical energy) in watts of any given
circuit.Electric power is measured by means of a wattmeter. This
instrument is of the electrodynamic type. It consists of a pair of
fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as
the potential coil.  The fixed coils are made up of a few turns of a
comparatively large conductor. The potential coil consists of many
turns of fine wire. It is mounted on a shaft, carried in jeweled
bearings, so that it may turn inside the stationary coils. The
movable coil carries a needle which moves over a suitably marked
scale. Spiral coil springs hold the needle to a zero position.The
figure below shows the circuit of a simple wattmeter.
Top Electric Generator (DC Generator)
• The electric generator is a machine for
producing electric current. The electric
generator or dynamo converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
 Principle

• The generator is an application of electromagnetic

induction. It works on the principle that when a
wire is moved in a magnetic field, then the current
is induced in the coil. A rectangular coil is made to
rotate rapidly in the magnetic field between the
poles of a horse shoe type magnet. When the coil
rotates, it cuts the lines of magnetic force, due to
which a current is produced in the generator coil.
This current can be used to run the various
electrical appliances.
• The basic principle behind generator is
Faraday’s law itself when ever a conductor cut
a magnetic flux am emf is induced in it and if
the circuit is closed a current will through
it.Therefore the essential parts of a generator
include magnetic field and conductors to cut
the magnetic flux produced by the field.
 Construction

• A simple D.C. generator consists of a rectangular coil ABCD which

can be rotated rapidly between the poles N and S of a strong horse-
shoe type magnet M. The generator coil is made of a large number
of turns of insulated copper wire. The two ends of the coil are
connected to the two copper half rings (or split rings) R1 and R2 of a
commutator. There are two carbon brushes B1 and B2 which press
lightly against the two half rings. When the coil is rotated, the two
half rings R1 and R2 touch the two carbon brushes B1 and B2 one by
one. So the current produced in the rotating coil can be tapped out
through the commutator half rings and into the carbon brushes.
From the carbon brushes B1 and B2 we can supply current into
various electrical appliances like radio, television, electric bulb etc.
 Working

• Let us suppose that the generator coil ABCD is initially in the horizontal position. As the
coil rotates in the anticlockwise direction between the pole N and S of the magnet the
side AB of the coil moves down cutting the magnetic lines of force near the N-pole of
the magnet and side DC moves up, cutting the lines of force near the S-pole of the
magnet. Due to this, induced current is produced in the sides AB and DC of the coil. On
applying Fleming's right hand rule to the sides AB and DC of the coil we find that the
currents in them are in the directions B to A and D to C respectively. Thus the induced
currents in the two sides of the coil are in the same direction and we get an effective
induced current in the direction BADC. Due to this the brush B 1 becomes the positive
pole and brush B2 becomes the negative pole of the generator. After half revolution, the
sides AB and DC of the coil will interchange their positions. The side AB will come on the
right hand side and starts moving up whereas side DC will come on the left hand side
and start moving down. But when sides of the coil interchange their positions, then the
two commutator half rings R1 and R2 automatically change their contacts from one
carbon brush to the other. Due to this change, the current keeps flowing in the same
direction. Thus a DC generator supplies a current only in one direction.
• Let us see how a generator work or voltage
builds up in a generator with the help of a
single turn coil.Checkout the diagram below
which shows the position of the coil at various
angle in the field.In this figure this coil has got
4 conductors or 4 coil sides but here we are
considering the top and bottom coils with
respect to the position ‘A’ in he figure.
• Lets see how the voltage builds up ,at first the coil is moving parallel to the
field at position ‘A’ and few magnetic flux lines get cut by it so the voltage
developed will be nearly zero.When the coils moves to position ‘B’ it cut
the maximum amount of flux or get associated with maximum ie at 90
degree rotation it cuts the maximum flux and hence the voltage produced
will be the maximum and then coil moves to position ‘c’ ie to 180 degree
from position ‘A’ ie position ‘c’ is as same as ‘A’ and so the rotation is
frmom maximum flux cutting region to minimum where the flux lines are
relatively parallel to the coil so the voltage back to zero.Position ‘D’ is
same as that of ‘B’ but the flux cutting in the reverse direction so the
voltage builds up to maximum in the reverse direction according to Lenzes
law and at the next stageback to the initial position ‘D’ which is same as
that of ‘A’.And from the graphs its clear that the the voltage generated is
proportional to the sine of angle between the conductor and field.
• In the figure above the voltage produced is twice the actual
voltage since two conductors are placed there opposite to each
other now there may be doubt why an emf is not produced in the
two vertical coils the figure?Actually an emf is produced in these
coils also but it gets canceled because since the two conductors
or coils move in same direction.And in first case the two coils
move in opposite direction and voltage build up happens.
• A sinusoidal wave form is obtained only if the magnetic field is
uniform but it is not easy to obtain a uniform field so it would
rather resemble a square wave in the practical case.And the
position ‘A’ and position ‘c’ is known as the interpolar or neutral
zones of the dynamo.
 EMF equation of DC Generator

E = (ΦNPZ) / (60 * A)

where,
E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path in armature
Φ = flux per pole in weber
N = armature rotation in revolutions per minute (r.p.m)
P = No.of generator poles
Z = total number of armature conductors
A = No.of parallel paths in armature
 Armature reaction
for a dc generator: Consists of 2 cases:1. when generator is
operated without load and 2. when generator is operated on load.
When generator is operated on no load only main flux(due to
poles) is produced.Now when load is applied,flux cuts through
the air gap and produces a counter flux due to presence of
armature.This flux caused by the presence of armature distorts
the main field flux,hence shifting the magnetic neutral axis in
the direction of rotation of the generator.This causes heat
loss.For a motor, the direction of shifting of Magnetic Neutral
axis is oposite to the direction of rotation. Since this loss occurs
due to action of armature, it is known as armature reaction.
 DC motors

• A simple DC motor has a coil of wire that can

rotate in a magnetic field. The current in the
coil is supplied via two brushes that make
moving contact with a split ring. The coil lies in
a steady magnetic field. The forces exerted on
the current-carrying wires create a torque on
the coil.