Comprehension

Guidelines for teachers to help

children who are struggling with
literacy
What is comprehension?
• ‘…ability to answer reasonable questions about a passage one has heard or
read’ (Biemiller, 1999, cited by McNaughton, 2002, p.164)
• ‘…knowledge, comprehension and memory form a synergistic relationship –
whatever improves one of these elements also improves the others. (Duke &
Pearson, p. 219)
• ‘extracting and constructing meaning from text’ (Sweet & Snow, 2002)
• ‘…the ability to apply meaning to what is read.’ (Ellery, 2005)
• ‘…a process concerned with large units of understanding, and is not just the
ability to answer questions from text’ (Smith & Elley, 1994, p. 49)
• ‘…both a pathway to reading and its end product.’ (Ministry of Education,
2003, p.39)
• ‘…is a consuming, continuous, and complex activity, but one that, for good
readers is both satisfying and productive.’ (Duke & Pearson, p. 208)
• Putting it all together: Using all the skills and strategies of phonological
awareness, vocabulary knowledge, semantic knowledge, prior knowledge,
predicting etc simultaneously to extract meaning from those odd little marks.
(Buckland, 2008)
How do good readers read?
Good readers…
• are fluent readers (Samuels, Schermer & Reinking, 2002)
• have strategies to deal with confusion (‘compensate’)
(Walczyk & Griffith-Ross, 2007)
• think about what is coming next (predict) and change
their predictions as necessary
• make connections to what they already know (link to
prior knowledge)
• think about what the writer’s purpose is
• have a purpose for their own reading
• are actively involved in the reading
• consider the structure of the text
• check meaning as they read
Strategies that help struggling readers to read
• consider 3 stages: before, during and after reading
(Dowhower, 1999)
• select a few strategies to focus on, but be prepared
to introduce new ones as necessary (Pearson,
Roehler, Dole & Duffy, 2002)
Six strategies to focus on:
• engage prior knowledge / prediction
• think aloud: teacher (first) and students
• investigate the structure of the text
• visualise the text
• summarise the text
• ask, make and answer questions
How to implement these strategies
• integrate the strategies with reading and writing
• move from teacher directed and modelled to student
directed and independent
• spend time actually reading
• read real texts for real purposes
• read a range of text genres
• cultivate a rich metalinguistic environment
• support expertise in decoding
• spend time writing for others to comprehend
• encourage quality discussion about text
• Use ‘think alouds’ to make the strategy use explicit
How do we do this?

CLASSROOM PROCEDURES
Shared Reading
• typically the teacher reads a text aloud with group or class
reading their own copy
• highly supportive: weaker readers can comprehend challenging
shared texts
• useful for a wide range of texts and abilities
• usually a strategy sequence of :
1. predict,
2. read,
3. clarify confusing vocabulary, punctuation or phrases
4. summarise
• the sequence may be used for chunks of the text or the entire text
• teacher models reading with think alouds, discussions about
vocabulary, questions about the text etc
• helps develop vocabulary
• may include follow-up responses to confirm and extend
comprehension
• requires some teacher preparation
Guided (Silent) Reading (GSR)
• A selected text is separated into manageable chunks
• the chunks of text are discussed before and after being read
silently by pupils
• a typical sequence of strategies for each chunk is:
1. predict what the chunk is to be about.
2. introduce the questions to be looked for.
3. read the chunk
4. clarify any vocabulary, phrases or punctuation that is confusing
5. find answers to the questions
6. summarise the chunk
• Pre reading discussion is important
• Post-reading responses to the text may be useful
• the selected text should be at a level that is challenging for the
group, but not too challenging (e.g. 5-10% unknown
vocabulary)
• requires a fair amount of preparation
• suitable for a group rotation
Reciprocal Reading
• Similar to GSR, but with the children taking over the role
of teacher and leading the reading
• Teacher guides group and gradually releases
responsibility to the group
• Sequence of strategies:
1. predict
2. read
3. clarify
4. question
5. summarise
• requires a fair amount of teacher preparation
• suitable for a group rotation
• may include response activities post-reading
• more suitable for readers with competent basic skills
• Mixed ability groups can be used
Repeated Reading
• suitable for children with weak fluency
• designed to increase fluency and automaticity
• child reads a short (50-100 words) meaningful
piece of text repeatedly until they are reading at 85
words/minute
• then repeat with new text
• similar to practising a sports or music skill
• speed is more important than accuracy
• listening post may be used
• graph results
• requires some teacher preparation
SSR (Sustained Silent Reading)
• Useful for building reading
endurance
• texts must be enjoyable and at an
appropriate level: usually self-
selected
• more useful for children with
some fluency
• requires little teacher preparation
Reading to
• should be part of every primary
classroom every day
• develops vocabulary
• teacher can demonstrate positive
attitude to reading
• more effective if teacher stops to
discuss text periodically
Transactional Strategies
• Similar to an extended reciprocal teaching
• children select and discuss (think aloud) the
strategies they think are appropriate
• some of the strategies (apart from the ones in the
reciprocal teaching sequence) include:
– thinking aloud
– visualising text
– character analysis
– thematic analysis
– structure analysis
• suitable for Literature Studies e.g. of poetry,
Picture Books, novels, short stories etc
• struggling readers will need more support
Pre-Reading: Predictions
Activities that are designed to:
• activate prior knowledge
• get the reader thinking about what may be in the
text
• e.g.
– examining illustrations, captions, diagrams, headings
etc from the text
– KWL; what we know, what we want to know, what
we have learned
– Cloze exercises: a section of the text with some
words removed, which pupils try to replace
– using vocabulary from the text to write a brief text
• it is important to check predictions against the text
when it has been read
Post Reading: Responses to text
Activities that are designed to return the reader to
the text and confirm their comprehension of it
e.g.
• graphic organisers that examine the plot,
character, structure, setting etc
• retelling the story in a different format e.g. by
sound recording, or as a play etc
• interviewing the author or a character
Management Considerations
• A balanced approach is essential
• Atypical 10-week term could include:
1. 1 week shared reading
2. 5-6 weeks GSR / Reciprocal teaching
3. 3-4 weeks Literature Study
• Consider a reading rotation that has 1 more station
than groups. This will free the teacher up for one
lesson per rotation, when he or she can catch up with
pupils who have been absent, or groups that need extra
help etc (see next slide for an example)
• Provide pupils with strategy bookmarks, so they can
monitor their own learning (see next slide for an
example)
Johnny

NB: the group’s

independent
reading is the GSR
of the group below.
 References
Biddulph, J. (2002). The guided reading approach: theory and research. Wellington, New Zealand: Learning Media.

Duke, N. K., & Pearson, P.D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. In A. E. Farstrup, & Samuels, P.D. (Eds.), What research has to say
about reading (pp. 205-242). Newark: International Reading Association.

Dowhower, S. L. (1999). Supporting a strategic stance in the classroom: a comprehension framework for helping teachers help students to be strategic. The Reading
Teacher, 52(7), 672-688.

Ellery, V. (2005). Creating strategic readers: techniques for developing competency in phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Newark,
Del.: International Reading Association.

Kelly, M., Moore, D.W., & Tuck, B.F. (1994).  Reciprocal teaching in a regular primary school classroom.  Journal of Educational Research, 88(1), 53-61.

McNaughton, S. (2002). Meeting of Minds. Wellington: Learning Media Ltd.

Ministry of Education. (2003). Effective literacy practice in years 1 to 4. Wellington, N.Z.: Learning Media.

Pearson, D. P., Roehler, L.R., Dole, J.A., Duffy, G.G. (2002). Developing expertise in reading comprehension. In S. J. Samuels & A. E. Farstrup (Eds.), What research
has to say about reading instruction (pp. 145-199). Newark: International Reading Association.

Samuels, S. J. (1997). The method of repeated readings. The Reading Teacher, 50(5), 376-381.

Samuels, S. J., Schermer, N., & Reinking, D. (2002). Reading fluency: techniques for making decoding automatic. In S. J. Samuels, & A. E. Farstrup (Eds.), What
research has to say about reading instruction (pp. 124-144). Newark: International Reading Association.

Smith, J. W. A., & Elley, W. B. (1994). Learning to read in New Zealand. Auckland, N.Z.: Longman Paul.

Smith, J., & Elley, W. (1997). Reading instruction techniques. In J. Smith & W.B. Elley, How children learn to read: Insights from the New Zealand experience (pp. 32-
40). Auckland, New Zealand: Longman.

Sweet, A. P., & Snow, C. (2002). Reconceptualizing reading comprehension. In C. C. Block, L.B. Gambrell, & M. Pressley, (Eds.), Improving comprehension
instruction: rethinking research, theory and classroom practice (pp. 17-53). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Walczyk, J. J., & Griffith-Ross, D.A. (2007). How important is reading skill fluency in comprehension? The Reading Teacher, 60(6), 560-569.