EUKARYOTIC CELL COMPONENTS

AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Daniel M.I. Alliangana, M.Phil.

Department of Medical Physiology
School of Medicine
Moi University
2015 ©
CELL ORGANELLES AND FEATURES
 Objectives

 Describe the structure and function of a cell’s plasma membrane.

 Summarize the role of the nucleus.

 List the major organelles found in the cytosol, and describe their
functional roles.

 Identify the characteristics of mitochondria.

 Describe the structure and function of the cytoskeleton.

 Cell Components
Basic components of a cell are:
 cell membrane

 nucleus

 cytoplasm

• cytosol
organelles
Structure of Animal Cells
 Organic Molecules of Cells
 Proteins
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Nucleic acids
 Proteins
 Most diverse and complex macromolecules in
the cell
 Used for structure, function and information
 Made of linearly arranged amino acid residues
 “folded” up with “active” regions
 Types of Proteins
1) Enzymes – catalyzes covalent bond breakage or
formation
2) Structural – collagen, elastin, keratin, etc.
3) Motility – actin, myosin, tubulin, etc.
4) Regulatory – bind to DNA to switch genes on or off
5) Storage – ovalbumin, casein, etc.
6) Hormonal – insulin, nerve growth factor (NGF), etc.
7) Receptors – hormone and neurotransmitter receptors
8) Transport – carries small molecules or irons
9) Special purpose proteins – green fluorescent protein,
etc.
 Cell Organelles
 Plasma membrane
- barrier
 Mitochondria
- power house
 Peroxisomes
 Hydrogen Peroxide generated and degraded
 Cytosol
 Water based gel
 Chemical reactions
 Cytoskeleton
 Filaments (actin, intermediate and microtubules)
 Movement of organelles and cell
 Structure/strengthen cell
 Vessicles
 Material transport
 Membrane, ER, Golgi derived vessicles
 Cell Organelles
 Golgi complex - Each of the body consists of flattened membrane sacs that are plate-like in shape.
-They are considered the final packaging location for proteins and lipids

 Endoplasmic reticulum -The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is found between the nucleus and the cell
membrane
-It is made of a system of folded membranes that create sacs and channels
- There are to different types of ER:

 Nucleus -Contains DNA ,nuclolus

 Nucleolus -This round structure appears as a dark dot in the nucleus.

 -Ribosomes are made here.

 Ribosomes - Ribosomes are small round organelles made of two sub units
-They are found loose in the cytoplasm or attached to the ER.

 Lysosomes- They break down old organelles and cells like they would food.

 Nissl bodies -are characteristic to cytoplasm and dendrites of nerve cells (neurons) they are consisting of parallel arrays of
cistena of rER

 Centrioles - are self- replicating organelles made up of 9 bundles of microtubules

- They are usually close to the nucleus outside the nuclear membrane.

 Cilia and Flagella -Cilia and flagella are similar except for length, cilia being much shorter .
- both are involved in cell movement
-
PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Daniel M.I. Alliangana, M.Phil.
Department of Medical Physiology
School of Medicine
Moi University
 2015 ©
 Learning Objectives
1. Describe the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane
structure and explain the underlying reasons for this structure.
2. Outline the roles of phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids,
proteins and glycoproteins in membranes.
3. Outline the roles of the plasma membrane, and the roles of
membranes within cells.
4. Describe and explain how molecules can get in and out of cells
(cross cell membranes) by the processes of diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, osmosis, active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis.
5. Describe the effects on animal cells of immersion in solutions
of different water potential.
6. Explain how the cell carry synthesis of various materials.
.
 Key words you should know

 Phospholipids Solution Pinocytosis

 Polar Solute Micropinocytosis
 Hydrophilic Solvent Exocytosis
 Hydrophobic Partially permeable
 Micelles Water potential
 Phospholipid bilayer Solute Potential
 Fluid mosaic model Pressure Potential Surface area
 Glycoproteins Turgid Epidermis
 Glycolipids Plasmolysis Passive transport
 Cholesterol Plasmolysed
 Proteins Incipient plasmolysis
 Transport proteins Active transport
 Enzymes Carrier protein
 Receptor molecules Bulk transport
 Diffusion Endocytosis
 Concentration gradient Phagocytosis
 Facilitated diffusion Phagocytes
 Osmosis Phagocytic vacuoles
12
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
 The outer covering of the cell.
- Creates separation between ECF and ICF (Separates the
intracellular (inside) fluid and the extracellular (outside) fluid.)

 Double layer of lipids (fat) with protein molecules between the

layers.
 Creates fluid compartments
 Regulates ECF – ICF exchange
 Allows for communication
 Provides structural support for cell and tissues
 Fluid Mosaic Model
 The fluid mosaic model states that the phospholipid bilayer
behaves like a fluid more than it behaves like a solid
 CELL MEMBRANE
Fluid –mosaic model
1-Lipid content
The main constituent is formed of phospholipid bilayer
arranged perpendicular to the surface of the membrane
2-Protein content in additon to Cholesterol
A ) Intrinsic (transmembrane) proteins . Which are
molecules are totally embedded in the lipid bilayer
extended from one side of the membrane to the
other

B ) Extrinsic( peripheral) proteins . Which are

partially embedded in the lipid (bound to the
surface )
3The lipid layer is essentially a fluid substance permitting lateral
mobility of both lipid and protein molecules , and hence they are
capable of transitional movements
3. Carbohydrates molecules may be found attached to lipids
forming glycolipids or attached to protein to form glycoprotein and
found on the outer surface
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Composed of two parallel rows of phospholipids called a phospholipid
bilayer.
 Contains two types of membrane proteins
- INTEGRAL- penetrate through the membrane

- form channels that have pores through which certain substances move in and out of the
cell.

- transporters (carriers) that move substances from one side of the membrane to the other.

- Receptors (recognition sites) which identify and attach various molecules (i.e. hormones,
antibodies.. etc.).

- cell identity markers-glycoproteins and glycolipids that enable the cell to recognize self
and foreign.

 PERIPHERAL - loosely attached to the exterior or interior surface of the membrane

 Cell Components
The Cell Membrane
 The physical barrier
 Formed by the tail to tail arrangement of the
phospholipid molecules
 Self assembles into

liposomes
bi-layer membranes

miceles
 Cell Components
The Cell Membrane

 How does a barrier become a regulator?

1. By being having a polar surface
2. By specialized membrane components

hydrophillic heads

hydrophobic tails

hydrophillic heads
 Cell Components
The Cell Membrane
 Other phospholipid bilayer membrane
components
 cholesterol
 sphingolipids
 Membrane proteins
Na+
 Glycoconjugates

ECF

ICF
 Cell Components
The Cell Membrane
 Sphingolipids
 Group of membrane lipids with larger “heads”
 Involved in
 cell signal transduction by forming caveolae
 cell-cell communication
 Endocytosis & uptake of viruses and bacteria
 Form “lipid rafts” – more cholesterol
OH
sphingosine
CH2O R

NH
R groups –
fatty acid determine
O functionalit
y
 Cell membranes are made of
PHOSPHOLIPIDs
 HYDROPHILIC heads (water liking)
-Attracted to the water
 called POLAR

 HYDROPHOBIC tails (water fearing)

-Not attracted to the water
 called NON-POLAR

A Phospholipid
Phospholipids are important structural components of cell membranes.
Phospholipids are modified so that a phosphate group (PO4-) replaces
one of the three fatty acids normally found on a lipid.
The addition of this group makes a polar "head" and two nonpolar
"tails".

21
 A PHOSPHOLIPID

HYDROPHILIC HEAD
At the other end of the phospholipid is a
phosphate group and several double
bonded oxygens.
The atoms at this end of the molecule
are not shared equally.
This end of the molecule has a charge
and is attracted to water. It is POLAR

HYDROPHOBIC TAILS
The two long chains coming off of the
bottom of this molecule are made up of
carbon and hydrogen.
Because both of these elements share their
electrons evenly these chains have no
charge. They are NON POLAR.
Molecules with no charge are not attracted to
water; as a result water molecules tend to
push them out of the way as they are
attracted to each other. 3D model of a
This causes molecules with no charge not to Phospholipid
dissolve in water.
 A Phospholipid Bilayer
Phospholipids can form:

BILAYERS

2 layers of phospholipids
with hydrophobic tails
protected inside by the
hydrophilic heads.

The PHOSPHOLIPID
BILAYER is the basic
structure of membranes.
 Structure of the cell membrane
Phospholipids
Cell membranes are made mainly of
phospholipids. They have:

HYDROPHILIC heads (water liking)

-Attracted to the water
POLAR
HYDROPHOBIC tails (water fearing)
-Not attracted to the water
NON-POLAR

Phospholipids can form BILAYERS

-2 layers of phospholipids with
hydrophobic tails protected
inside by the hydrophilic
heads.

The PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER is

the basic structure of membranes.

25
Diagram representing the cell membrane
The membrane is 7nm wide
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
 The outer covering of the cell.

 Separates the intracellular (inside) fluid and the

extracellular (outside) fluid.

 Double layer of lipids (fat) with protein molecules

between the layers.

 Fluid Mosaic Model

 The fluid mosaic model states that the phospholipid bilayer
behaves like a fluid more than it behaves like a solid
 Fluid mosaic model

Cell membranes also contain proteins within the phospholipid

bilayer.
This ‘model’ for the structure of the membrane is called the:
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
FLUID- because individual phospholipids and proteins can move
around freely within the layer, like it’s a liquid.
MOSAIC- because of the pattern produced by the scattered protein
molecules when the membrane is viewed from above.
CELL MEMBRANE
 Features of the fluid mosaic model
 Double layer – BILAYER of phospholipids which can move about by
DIFFUSION in their own MONOLAYER
 Phospholipid tails point inwards forming a NON-POLAR
HYDROPHOBIC interior. The phospholipid heads point outwards facing
the aqueous (water containing) medium surrounding the membrane.
 Some phospholipids fatty acid tails are SATURATED – straight so fit
together tightly. Some are UNSATURATED – bent so fit together loosely.
The more unsaturated tails there are the more ‘fluid’ the membrane
becomes. The lower the temp, the less fluid.
 Most protein molecules float like icebergs in the layers, some are fixed to
structures inside the cell and don’t float.
 Some proteins are embedded in the outer layer, some in the inner layer
and some span the two layers. Hydrophobic and Hyrdophilic parts of the
protein molecules sit next to the Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic portions of
the phospholids of the membrane. This ensures the proteins stay in the
membrane.
 The membrane is 7nm thick on average.
 Some phospholipids have carbohydrates attached to them –
GLYCOLIPIDS
 Some of the proteins have carbohydrates attached to them –
GLYCOPROTEINS
 The membrane also contains molecules of CHOLESTEROL
 Cell Components
The Cell Membrane

 Membrane Proteins
 3 categories
 transmembrane proteins
 peripheral proteins
 lipid anchored (amphitropic) proteins
 Cell Components
The Cell Membrane

 Transmembrane Proteins
 Types:
 Most common type in mammalian cells are alpha
helical proteins
 Also beta barrels in mitochondria
Single and polytopic alpha Beta barrel helical
helical membrane proteins membrane proteins
 Cell Components
The Cell Membrane

 Functions of transmembrane proteins

 Transport function
 Enzyme function
 Gated Ion channel formation
 Receptor function/signal transduction
 Cell Components
Membrane

 Peripheral Proteins –
 attachments to the phospholipid bi-layer

interaction by
electrostatic or
interaction with a covalently
interaction by ionic
alpha helix in bound
a hydrophobic interactions
transmembrane membrane
loop with
protein (not shown) lipid (forms
membrane
many
lipids
sphingolipids)
 Cell Components
Membrane
 Peripheral Protein Functions
 Enzyme function
 Mediate chemical reactions
 Structural
 Mediate attachment
 Transporters
 Between/among cell membrane proteins
 Electron carriers
 In electron transport chain
 Regulators
 Such as apoptosis
 Cell Components
The cell Membrane

 Glycoconjugates

 Includes glycolipids & glycoproteins

 Form a glycocalyx on the exoplasmic surface

 Many functions
 Integrated with other membrane molecules/structures
such as sphingolipids
 FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE
1. Gives the cell its characteristic shape & Provide protection to the
cell

2. Allows selective receptivity and signal transductiction by providing

trans membrane receptors that bind signal molecules.
3 - Acts as interface between the internal cell component and the extra
cellular environment.

4 - Regulates exchange of materials between the cell and its

surroundings
through certain mechanisms (cell transport).
- Endocytosis (phagocytosis , pinocytosis) and exocytosis.

5. Has sodium-potassium pump responsible for polarization

of cell membrane
7. Allow cell recognition

8. Help compartmentalize sub-cellular domains and micro domains

9. Provide stable site for binding of and catalysis or enzymes

10 . Cell membrane plays part in forming.

a) Myline sheath b) Microvilli

c) Cilia d) Flagella (in spermatozoa)

11. Provide anchoring sites for cytoskeleton filaments or components of the

extracellular matrix. This allows the cell to maintain its shape or move to
distant sites.

12. Regulates the fusion of the membrane with other membrane in the cell
(via specified functions)

13. Provide passage way across the membrane for certain molecules (e.g. gap
functions).

14. Allows directed cell or organelle motility.

 Cell Components
The cell Membrane

 Functions of glycocalyx:
 Protection
 Cushions the plasma membrane and protects it from chemical injury
 Immunity to infection
 Enables the immune system to recognize and selectively attack foreign
organisms
 Defense against cancer
 Changes in the glycocalyx of cancerous cells enable the immune system to
recognize and destroy them
 Transplant compatibility
 Forms the basis for compatibility of blood transfusions, tissue grafts, and organ
transplants
 Cell adhesion
 Binds cells together so that tissues do not fall apart
 Inflammation regulation
 Glycocalyx coating on endothelial walls in blood vessels prevents leukocytes
from rolling/binding in healthy states
 Fertilization
 Enables sperm to recognize and bind to eggs
 Embryonic development
 Guides embryonic cells to their destinations in the body
 Summary
 Cell membranes have a basic structure composed of a PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER.
 Phospholipds have HYDROPHOBIC (non-polar) tails and HYDROPHILIC (polar) heads.
 The best model of the cell membrane is called the FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
 The average thickness of the membrane is 7nm.
 The fatty acid tails of phospholipids can be SATURATED (straight) or UNSATURATED
(bent)
 Proteins can float or be fixed and also have hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions.
 Some proteins and phospholipids have carbohydrates attached to them to form
GLYCOPROTEINS AND GLYCOLIPIDS.
 Phospholipids form the bilayer, act as barrier to most water soluble substances
 Cholesterol regulates the fluidity of the membrane, gives mechanical stability and help to
prevent ions from passing through the membrane.
 Proteins act as transport proteins to act as channels for substances to move into or out of
the cell. Some act as membrane enzymes and some have important roles in membranes of
organelles.
 Glycolipids and Glycoproteins help to stabilise membrane structure, some act as receptor
molecules eg for hormones and neurotransmitters or as antigens for other cells to
recognise them.
FUNCTIONS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE (summary)
 Maintains the electrochemical Gradient
 Selective permeability- regulation of the entry
and exit of materials
-DEPENDS ON VARIOUS FACTORS
 lipid solubility- substances that dissolve in lipids
easily pass across membrane.
 size- most large particles cannot pass. A few
small molecules pass (CO2, H2O, O2).
 charge- impermeable to ions
 presence of channels and transporters-
 Features of the fluid mosaic model exercise
1. Double layer – BILAYER of phospholipids which can move about by
………………………… in their own ……………………….
2. Phospholipid tails point inwards forming a ……. ……….
………………………… interior. The phospholipid heads point outwards
facing the aqueous (water containing) medium surrounding the membrane.
3. Some phospholipids fatty acid tails are ……………………….. – straight so
fit together tightly. Some are ………………………… – bent so fit together
……………………. The more unsaturated tails there are the more
……………… the membrane becomes. The lower the temp, the
……………….fluid.
4. Most protein molecules …………………. like icebergs in the layers, some
are fixed to ………………………. inside the cell and don’t float.
5. Some proteins are embedded in the outer layer, some in the inner layer and
some ………………… the two layers. Hydrophobic and Hyrdophilic parts of
the protein molecules sit next to the …………………………… and
………………………….. portions of the ……………………………… of the
membrane. This ensures the proteins stay in the membrane.
6. The membrane is ……nm thick on average.
7. Some phospholipids have carbohydrates attached to them called-
………………………..
8. Some of the proteins have carbohydrates attached to them called–
……………………
9. The membrane also contains molecules of ………………………………..
 Features of the fluid mosaic model solution
1. DIFFUSION , MONOLAYER
2. NON-POLAR HYDROPHOBIC
3. SATURATED ,UNSATURATED ,‘fluid’ , less
4. float like icebergs , structures.
5. span , Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic ; phospholids
6. 7nm
7. – GLYCOLIPIDS
8. GLYCOPROTEINS
9. CHOLESTEROL
 Cell Components
The Cytoplasm

 Cytoplasm is divided functionally into

 Cytosol
 Site of many chemical reactions
 Inclusions
 Membranous Organelles
 Functional units of the cell
 Cell Components
The Cytoplasm
 Cytosol functions (many in conjunction with other
processes)

 Cell signaling

 Cytokinesis

 Protein synthesis

 Glycolysis

 gluconeogenesis
 Cell Components
The Cytoplasm

 The Inclusions
 Direct contact on the cytosol
 Ribosomes
 Involved in synthesis of proteins
 Proteasomes
 Involved in protein degradation
 Vaults
 Functional aspect TBD definitively
 Found associated with lipid rafts
 May play a role in transport into and
out of the nucleus
 Protein fibers
 Provide structure and movement within the
cell
 Actin
 Intermediate filaments
 microtubules
 Cell Components
The Cytoplasm

 Actin
 Smallest cytoskeletal filament (aka microfilament)
 Fiber composed of actin molecules
 Associated with myosin for
muscle contraction
 Contains binding sites
for myosin
 Cell Components
The Cytoplasm

 Intermediate Filaments
 Provide structure for
 Type I & II Intermediate filaments
 Hair/nails – keratin fibers

 Type III Intermediate filaments

 Desmin
 Involved in structural support of sarcomeres
 Connects z discs to subsarcolemmal cytoskeleton!
 Involved in migration of cells during embryogenesis

 Vimentin
 Support cell membranes
 Cytoskeltal component that anchors some organelles
 Peripherins & GFAP’s (glial fibrillary acidic protein)
 Intermediate filaments in nerves and glial cells
 Cell Components
The Cytoplasm
 Intermediate filaments cont…
 Type IV Intermediate filaments
 Filament group that has types in neural tissue as well
as muscle tissue

 Type V Intermediate filaments

 These are nuclear filaments, providing support for the
nuclear membrane

 Type VI Intermediate filaments

 Aids in growth of axons
 Cell Components
The Cytoplasm
 Microtubles
 Assembled from monomers of tubulin ( &
)
 ( & ) monomers combine to form dimers
 these assemble to create protofilaments
(single tubes) which then assemble into
the larger structures of
 Centrioles
 Direct microtubule formation during the M
phase of the cell cycle
 Form basal bodies for flagella and cilia
 flagella and cilia – provide motility
 Using dyenin “motors”
 Cell Components (The Cytoplasm)

Assembly
of a cilium
 Cell Components
The Cytoplasm

 The cytoskeletal components help to

 Maintain cell shape
 Organize the internal compartment of the cell
 Provide transport routes within cells
 Aid in creation of tissues from cells
 Create movement
 Along with motor proteins such as
Myosins – Actin motor protein
Dyenins
Kinesins Microtubule motor proteins
Other cellular motors proteins include:
ATP synthase, DNA & RNA polymerase
 Cytoskeleton
 Acts as skeleton and
muscle
 Provides shape and
structure
 Helps move
organelles around
the cell
 Made of three types
of filaments
 Cell Components
The Cytoplasm
 The Membrane Bound Organelles
 Provide additional specific functionality to
cells
 Protein production
 Lipid, phospholipid, steroid manufacture
 ATP generation
 Defense/Protection
 Storage
 NUCLEUS
 The nucleus is the largest cellular
organelle in animals. In mammalian cells,
the average diameter of the nucleus is
approximately 6 micrometers (μm),
which occupies about 10% of the total
cell volume.
 The viscous liquid within it is called
nucleoplasm, and is similar in
composition to the cytosol found outside
the nucleus. It appears as a dense,
roughly spherical organelle
 NUCLEUS
 Nucleus contains the biochemical processes involved in the
Replication of DNA before mitosis.
 Involved in the DNA repair.
 Transcription of DNA – RNA synthesis.
 Translation of DNA- Protein synthesis.
 There are two types of chromatin –Euchromatin and
Heterochromatin.

 Euchromatin is the less compact DNA form, and contains genes

that are frequently expressed by the cell. The other type,
heterochromatin, is the more compact form, and contains DNA that
are infrequently transcribed.

 NUCLEOLUS- involved in the processing of rRNA and ribosomal

units
 After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to
the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA.
 The Nucleus
CONTROL CENTER OF THE
CELL
 The chromosomes are replicated, organized
and stored here.
 Usually the easiest organelle to see under a
microscope
 Usually one per cell
 Contains
 DNA

 Nucleolus
 DNA that regulates the synthesis of
ribosomal RNA
 Double phospholipid bilayer for a
nuclear membrane or Nuclear Envelope
 The Nucleus
Functions
Nuclear membrane compartmentalizes the
nuclear material from the rest of the cell
allowing control on both sides
Outer membrane is in contact with the endoplasmic reticulum
membrane
Material enters and exits through nuclear pores
Gene Expression
Can only happen if material is allowed in &
out of the nucleus
Processing of pre-mRNA
Introns are removed, exons remain
 Nuclear Membrane
 The nuclear
membrane covers
the nucleus.

 It allows materials
to flow in and out
of small pores.
 Nucleolus
 This round structure appears as
a dark dot in the nucleus.

Ribosomes are made here.

• Cell’s power source
• Organelles with two membranes

• Found in the cytoplasm

• Usually rod shaped, although
some are round
• Has its own DNA

•Convert energy into

forms that are useable
by the cell.
 MITOCHONDRIA
 sausage or worm-shaped

 enclosed in two separate membranes; outer smooth and inner folded repeatedly
 Inner membrane convolutes into cristae and this increases its surface area.
 Both the membranes have different appearance and biochemical functions:

 contain their own DNA (mtDNA)

 reproduce by dividing in two

 thought to have evolved from prokaryotes living in a symbiotic relationship with host eukaryote

 function as the powerhouses of the cell by producing energy in form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate)

 consumes O2 and releases CO2 in process of producing ATP

 cellular respiration – entire process of producing ATP

 (IS THE EQUIVALENT OF CHLOROPLASTS IN PLANTS)

 Functions of mitochondria
1- Mitochondria known as the main power-generatorsOf
the cell by converting oxygen, glucose into energy
through ATP

2- they contain the respiratory enzymes which are

responsible for all the oxidative phosphorylation.

3-very rich in Ca ,Mg ions which is important to

catalyse the enzymatic reaction
 Mitochondria
 “Powerhouse of the
cell”
 Cellular respiration
occurs here to
release energy for
the cell to use
 Bound by a double
membrane
 Has its own strand
of DNA
 LYSOSOMES
 A single small, irregularly shaped membrane
vesicles
- formed from the interaction of ER and Golgi
bodies in a process called GERL .
 They break down old organelles and cells like

they would food.

 They can destroy a cell if accidentally opened.

 Lysosomes contain many hydrolytic enzyme

Position : present in almost all kinds of body cells

 Functions of Lysosomes
Function in intracellular digestion, releasing nutrients from
food particles and breaking down unwanted molecules for
recycling or excretion
Digestion of certain materials and waste product .1
inside cytoplasm e.g digestion of old mitochondria

Play an important role in defending the body .2

against invading organisms
they can kill bacteria and viruses by -
phagocytosis
3. Facilitate the process of penetration of sperm to
ovum during fertilization

4. lysosomes are concerned with post mortem changes

(they still function even when the cell is dead)
 Lysosomes
 Garbage disposal
of the cell
 Contain digestive
enzymes that break
down wastes

Which organelles do
lysosomes work with?
 Lysosomes
 These are responsible for the intracellular
digestion of both intra and extracellular
substances.

 They have a single limiting membrane.

 They have an acidic pH- 5

 They have a group of enzymes called

Hydrolases.
 Lysosomes
 The enzyme content varies in different tissues
according to the requirement of tissues or the
metabolic activity of the tissue.
 Lysosomal membrane is impermeable and
specific translocators are required.
 Vesicles containing external material fuses with
lysosomes, form primary vesicles and then
secondary vesicles or digestive vacoules.
 Lysosomes are also involved in autophagy.
 Ribosome
 Site of protein
synthesis
 Found attached to
rough ER or floating
free in cytosol
 Produced in a part
of the nucleus called
the nucleolus
That looks familiar…what is a
polypeptide?
 Ribosomes are small
round organelles
made of two sub
parts.
 They are found loose
in the cytoplasm or
attached to the ER.
 They are the site of
protein synthesis.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is
found between the nucleus and
the cell membrane

• It is made of a system of folded

membranes that create sacs and
channels

• There are to different types of

ER:
Rough ER: studded with
ribosomes;
it makes proteins
Smooth ER: no ribosomes;
It makes lipids
Endoplasmic Reticulum

 The ER is responsible for

biosynthesis and
transportation of materials
inside of the cell
 . ER along with Golgi
apparatus is involved
in the synthesis of
other organelles –
lysosomes &
Peroxisomes.
 ROUGH Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Rough appearance is due to the presence of ribosomes
attached on its cytosolic side(outer side).
 These ribosomes are involved in the biosynthesis of
proteins
 These proteins are either incorporated into the
membranes or into the organelles.
 Special proteins are present that are called
CHAPERONES. Theses proteins play a role in proper
folding of proteins.
 Protein glycosylation also occurs in ER i.e. the
carbohydrates are attached to the newly synthesized
proteins.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is involved in

lipid synthesis.
 Cholesterol synthesis

 Steroid hormones synthesis.

 Detoxification of endogenous and exogenous

substances.
 The enzyme system involved in detoxification is

called Microsomal Cytochrome P450

monooxygenase system(xenobiotic metabolism).
 Golgi apparatus
Composed of 3 elements:
1- Flattened stacks of single membrane bound sacs one
above the other .

- receives and modifies cellular components made by the

ER and then directs them to the exterior of the cell or to
other locations

2- Transfer vesicles (micro -vesicles)

3- Secretory vesicles (macro -vesicles )

 Golgi Apparatus
 Looks like a stack of
plates
 Stores, modifies and
packages proteins
 Molecules
transported to and
from the Golgi by
means of vesicles
Golgi Body (Named after the Italian Biologist Camillo Golgi)

 Each of the
body consists of
flattened
membrane sacs
that are plate-
like in shape.

 They are
considered the
final packaging
location for
proteins and
lipids.

 They prepare
hormones and
digestive
enzymes before
sending them
out.
 FUNCTIONS OF GOLGI APPARATUS
Concerned with the secretory activity of the cell.
 Receives and modifies cellular components made by the ER

and then directs them to the exterior of the cell or to other

locations

 Involved in the formation of primary lysosomes .

 Involved in formation of enamel of tooth and acrosome of

sperm.
 Golgi complex is a network of flattened smooth membranous
sacs- cisternae and vesicles.
 These are responsible for the secretion of proteins from the
cells(hormones, plasma proteins, and digestive enzymes).
 It works in combination with ER.
 Golgi comlex
 Enzymes in golgi complex transfer carbohydrate
units to proteins to form of glycoporoteins, this
determines the ultimate destination of proteins.
 Golgi is the major site for the synthesis of new
membrane, lysosomes and peroxisomes.
 It plays two major roles in the membrane
synthesis:
i. It is involved in the processing of
oligosaccharide chains of the membranes (all
parts of the GA participates).
ii. It is involved in the sorting of various proteins
prior to their delivery(Trans Golgi network).
 Vacuoles & vesicles
 Vacuoles are single membrane-bound sacs
 which are parts of outside located inside the cell.
 used to bring things into the cell (endocytosis) or take
things out of the cell (exocytosis)

 contain a variety of materials

 Vesicles are much smaller than vacuoles and they are parts
from inside the cell.

 Function :
1-Transport inside and outside the cell
2-used as storage area
Vacuole
• The vacuole is a membrane
enclosed sac filled with fluid or
food. .

 Most plants have a

large single vacuole
 VACUOLE

 Animal cells have

several smaller
vacuoles.

 They are used for

storage and
digestion.
 Centrioles
 Centrioles are self- replicating organelles made
up of 9 bundles of microtubules in
 They are usually located near nucleus as two

short rods or granules in the light microscope

Functions of centrioles

1- it is self replicating organelles which are often

duplicated during the prophase and metaphase

2- contribute in forming cilia and flagella

 Centriole
 Aids in cell division
 Usually found only in
animal cells
 Made of microtubules

Where else have we talked

about microtubules?
 Centrioles
A pair of tube-like
structures that contain
nine sets of three rods.

•They are
usually close •Centrioles are
to the nucleus involved in cell
outside the divisions (mitosis
nuclear and meiosis.)
membrane.
 PEROXISOMES
 Called Peroxisomes because of their ability to
produce or utilize H2O2.
 They are small, oval or spherical in shape.
 They have a fine network of tubules in their
matrix.
 About 50 enzymes have been identified.
 The number of enzymes fluctuates according to
the function of the cells.
 PEROXISOMES
 The most cellular microbodies ,spherical in shape and bounded with
one membrane .

 provide a contained environment in which hydrogen peroxide is

generated and degraded

Position : common in liver and kidney cells

Functions of peroxisomes :
 Contain several enzymes involved in the production and destruction

of hydrogen peroxide.

 This safety reaction prevents the accumulation of strong oxidizing

agent
 PEROXISOMES
 Contain oxidases (use oxygen to neutralize
aggressive compounds known as free radicals).

 Free radicals can damage cellular proteins,

membranes, and DNA if left to accumulate.
 NISSL BODIES
 Nissel bodies are characteristic to cytoplasm and
dendrites of nerve cells (neurons) they are
consisting of parallel arrays of cistena of rER
 Functions of Nissl bodies

 These organelles are usually breaking up and

diffusing throughout cytoplasm and involved in
treating nerve cell injury and react to prolonged
stimulation of neurons
 Cilia and flagella
 Cilia and flagella are similar except for length,
cilia being much shorter .

 Both composed of 9+2 arrangement of

microtubules and both are involved in cell
movement
 cell aging and death
 Young stage : at which the cell still growing in
both structure and function levels .

 Optimum stage : at which the cell reaches its

maximum activities and works optimally for a
period

 Aging stage : at which some changes appear

such as irregular shape of its membrane ,
shrinkage , disappear of some organelles and the
nucleus turned to be more dense and inactive
 Aging cell
Irregular ,shrinked
membranes
Some organelles disappear
Nucleus becomes denser

cell death
cell division
Dead cells usually swollen
due to gases
the cell can divide it can inside then may rupture
avoid more sever symptoms and disintegrate
 Cell to Cell Junctions
 The formation of tissues requires
 Ability to attach cells to neighboring cells
 Very important in epithelial cells & muscle cells
 Production of extracellular materials
 Very important in connective tissues
 Communication between cells
 Cell migration during development and repair
 Cell to Cell Junctions
 Junctions between cells
 Zonula occludens
 Zonula adherens
 Macula adherens
 Gap junctions
 Synapses
 Junctions between cells and the extracellular
material
 Hemidesmosomes
 Focal adhesions
 Cell to Cell Junctions (Tight Junctions)

 Why all this complexity in tight junctions?

 Prevents integral protein migration
 Maintains polarity of cells that utilize them
 Prevents passage of substance between cell
membranes
 Cell to Cell Junctions Desmosomes

 zonula adherens & macula adherens

 Function in providing strong attachemnts between
adjacent lateral membranes
 Difference is in continuity
 Zonula (zone) is around the
apical region of tightly
packed cells (epithelial)
 Macula (spot) occurs in
spots on the lateral
membranes of adjacent
cells
 Cell to Cell Junctions
cell-matrix junctions
 Focal Adhesions & Hemidesmosomes
 Attach to underlying extracellular matrix
 Focal Adhesions
 Transmembrane protein
integrin interacts with fibers
such as collagen to anchor
the membrane
 Cytoplasmic fibers (actin)
interact with the integrin to
provide intracellular stability
 Hemidesmosomes
 Attach epithelials to underlying basement membrane
 Similar to “regular” desmosomes, but only ½ and use
integrins instead of cadherins
 Cell to Cell Junctions
gap junctions
 Gap Junction Structure
 Transmembrane proteins
called connexons form
“channels” between adjacent
cells
 Function
 Communication by allowing
ions to flow from cell to cell
very quickly
 Form electrical synapses in
neural tissue
 Cell to Cell Junctions Synapses

 Specialized junctions between neurons and

Other neurons
 Muscle (neuromuscular junction)
 Glands (neuroglandular junction)
 Specialized for
 Communication via neurotransmitters