2

Chapter 2

The Relational Model 1:

Introduction, QBE, and
Relational Algebra

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Objectives

 Describe the relational model

 Understand Query-by-Example (QBE)
 Use Criteria in QBE
 Create Calculated Columns in QBE
 Calculate Statistics in QBE

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Objectives (con’t.)

 Sort data in QBE

 Join Tables in QBE
 Update data using QBE
 Understand relational algebra

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Relational Databases
 Collection of tables
 Each entity in own table
 Attributes are fields (columns) in table
 Relationships are common columns in two or
more tables
 Order of rows and columns is immaterial
 Repeating groups are not permitted
 Entries with repeating groups are
unnormalized

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Relations

 Two dimensional table in which:

 Entries are single-valued
 Each column (field or attribute) has a distinct
name
 All values in a column represent the same
attribute
 Order of columns is immaterial
 Each row (record or tuple) is distinct
 Order of rows is immaterial

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Query-by-Example (QBE)

 Query
 Questions represented in a way the DBMS can
recognize and process
 QBE
 Visual approach to writing queries
 Used in MS-Access

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Simple Queries
Figure 2.3

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Simple Queries (con’t.)
Figure 2.4

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Query that Includes All Fields
Figures 2.5 – 2.6

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Query with Simple Criteria
Figures 2.7 – 2.8

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Query Using AND Criteria
Figures 2.9 – 2.10

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Query Using OR Criteria
Figures 2.11 – 2.12

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Query Using Two
Conditions on a Single Field
Figures 2.13 – 2.14

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Query Using Computed Field
Figures 2.15 – 2.16

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Query to Count Records
Figures 2.17 – 2.18

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Query to Calculate an Average
Figures 2.19 – 2.20

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Query to Sort Records
Figures 2.23 – 2.24

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Query to Sort on Multiple Keys
Figure 2.27

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Query to Sort on Multiple Keys (con’t.)
Figure 2.28

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Query to Join Tables
Figure 2.29

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Query to Join Tables (con’t.)
Figure 2.30

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Query to Restrict Records in a Join
Figures 2.31 – 2.32

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Update Query
Figure 2.35

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Delete Query
Figure 2.36

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Make-Table Query
Figure 2.37

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Make-Table Query (con’t.)
Figure 2.39

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Relational Algebra

 Theoretical way of manipulating a relational

database to produce new tables
 Major commands
 SELECT
 Retrieves certain rows
 PROJECT
 Include certain columns
 JOIN
 Pull data from more than one table

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Customer & Sales Rep Tables
Figure 2.40

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Join of Customer and Sales Rep
Figure 2.41

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Outer Join of Customer and Sales Rep
Figure 2.42

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Normal Set Operations

 Union of two tables

 Result contains all rows that are in either the first
table, the second table, or both
 Intersection of two tables
 Result contains all rows common to both
 Difference of tables
 Result is the set of rows in one table but not the
other

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Normal Set Operations (con’t.)

 Product of two tables

 Result contains Cartesian product
 Obtained by concatenating every row in first
table with every row in second table
 Division Process
 Result contains quotient

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Product of Two Tables
Figure 2.43

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Dividing One Table by Another
Figure 2.44

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