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Module 8

Satellite Navigation (SatNav)

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Learning Outcomes
 Discuss the principles of Satellite Navigation System
 Explain the significance of Global Positioning System
 Explain the different types of satellite navigational
system and their services
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History of Satellites

 6th century BCE – Ancient Greek geocentric model

 Ancient Greek astronomers believe the Earth is the
centre of the Universe and that all celestial
bodies orbit the Earth. Anaximander describes this in
c550 BCE. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) and Claudius
Ptolemy (c100–c170 CE) develop more complex
geocentric models.
 Ptolemaic model
 Ptolemy’s model (geocentric) places the Earth at the
centre of the Universe. The Sun and planets revolve in
a series of circular orbits moving out from the Earth.
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History of Satellites
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History of Satellites
 14th century – Ibn al-Shatir anticipates Copernicus
 Islamic astronomer Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) of the
Maragha school accepts the geocentric model but
produces configurations that challenge the Ptolemaic
model. His calculations are similar to the later
calculations of Copernicus.
 1543 – Copernicus’s heliocentric model
 Polish astronomer Copernicus (1473–1543) proposes
that the Sun is stationary in the center of the Universe
and the Earth and other planets revolve around it. The
church suppresses this controversial idea but it
revolutionizes astronomy.
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History of Satellites
 1572 – Tycho Brahe’s accurate measurements
 Danish astronomer Tycho (Tyge) Brahe (1546–1601)
designs and builds instruments that allow him to
accurately observe stellar and planetary positions. His
records of the motion of Mars are later used by Kepler.

 Tycho Brahe’s model

 Tycho Brahe rejected the Copernican model. He
proposed a model with the Sun revolving around the
Earth and the planets orbiting the Sun.
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History of Satellites
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History of Satellites
 1609–1610 – Galileo and heliocentrism
 Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei’s improvements to the
telescope allow him to observe Venus’s phases, the
largest satellites of Jupiter, a supernova and sunspots.
His discoveries prove the Copernican heliocentric
system. The Roman Inquisition finds him guilty of
heresy.
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History of Satellites
 1610 – Kepler uses the term ‘satellite’
 German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)
uses the term ‘satellite’ to describe the moons orbiting
Jupiter. He develops the three laws of planetary motion,
and his accurate astronomical tables
provide evidence for the Copernican heliocentric model.
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History of Satellites
 Kepler’s laws
 Kepler realized the orbits of the planets could be
elliptical rather than circular. Using Brahe’s data on the
movement of Mars, Kepler developed his laws of
planetary motion.
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History of Satellites
 1687 – Newton and gravity
 Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) publishes Principia in
which he states the three laws of motion and describes
universal gravity. This lays the foundation for our
understanding of rockets, satellites and orbits.
 1869–1879 – First fictional artificial satellites
 The first fictional depictions of satellites being launched
into orbit are published in Edward Everett Hale’s short
story The Brick Moon (1869) and Jules Verne’s The
Begum’s Fortune (1879).
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History of Satellites
 1903 – First orbit of Earth calculated
 Russian Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) proposes
using rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculates the
orbital speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth
at 8 km/s and that a multi-stage rocket fueled by liquid
propellants could be used to achieve this.
 1928 – First description of a space station
 Slovenian Herman Potočnik (1892–1929) describes
geostationary satellites and communication between them
and Earth using radio. He also describes a space station
in detail and the use of orbiting spacecraft for detailed
observation of the Earth and scientific experiments.
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History of Satellites
 1945 – Satellite communications system proposed
 British science fiction writer and inventor Arthur C
Clarke (1917–2008) publishes an article that shows how
geostationary satellites could be used for worldwide
radio and television broadcasts and communication.
 1957 – First artificial satellite launch
 The Soviet Union launches Sputnik, the first
artificial satellite to orbit around the Earth. It has a mass
of 83.6 kg and travels in an elliptical orbit at a height
above the Earth between 939 km and 215 km. It travels
at 29,000 km/h and takes 96.2 minutes for each orbit.
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History of Satellites
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History of Satellites

 1960 – First successful weather satellite

 NASA launches Tiros-1, the first weather satellite
considered a success. It transmits infrared images of
Earth’s cloud cover and is able to detect and chart
hurricanes. This begins the Tiros program, which is
followed by the Nimbus program of weather satellites.
 1961 – First person to orbit Earth
 Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin (1934–1968)
becomes the first person to orbit the Earth in his Vostok
spacecraft. After this, he becomes an international
celebrity and undertakes several overseas tours.
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History of Satellites

 1962 – First communications satellite

 The first live transatlantic telecast is broadcast using
Telstar-1, a low-orbit satellite. Later, an international
global satellite consortium (Intelsat) is formed, which
manages a constellation of communications satellites
providing international broadcast services.
 1970 – China launches its first satellite
 China launches its first satellite Dongfanghong 1 into
Earth orbit on its Long March rocket, becoming the fifth
nation to achieve independent launch capability. The
other nations are the Soviet Union (1957), the USA
(1958), France (1965) and Japan (1970).
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History of Satellites

 1972 – Beginning of Landsat program

 The Earth Resources Technology Satellite is launched.
This begins the longest-running program of satellite
imagery of the Earth, later renamed Landsat. Landsat
instruments acquire millions of images that are used to
evaluate natural and human changes to the Earth.
 1979 – ESA’s first launch
 The European Space Agency (ESA) launches Ariane-1,
which is designed primarily to put two
telecommunications satellites into orbit. This begins
ESA’s space program that continues into the present.
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History of Satellites

 1981 – First space shuttle launched

 The first space shuttle Columbia is launched with
astronauts John W Young and Robert L Crippen. This is
the beginning the American Space Shuttle program,
which takes astronauts and satellites into orbit around
the Earth. This program continues for 30 years.
 1990 - Hubble Space Telescope
 The Hubble Space Telescope is carried into orbit by the
Space Shuttle. Its orbit outside the
Earth’s atmosphere allows it to take sharp images that
lead to breakthroughs in astrophysics, for example,
determining the rate of the Universe’s expansion.
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History of Satellites
 The galaxy cluster Abell S0740, 463 million light years away, has a very bright central
galaxy with many other galaxies orbiting it. This image was taken by the Hubble Space
Telescope.
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History of Satellites
 1994 – First GPS constellation
 The first global positioning system constellation becomes
operational. It consists of 24 geosynchronous
satellites. GPS is a space-based satellite navigation
system that provides location and time information in all
weather, anywhere on or near the Earth.
 1998 – International Space Station launched
 The first component of the modular International Space
Station is launched. It is an international collaboration
involving Russia, the USA, the European Union, Japan
and Canada. It serves as a microgravity and space
environment research laboratory.
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History of Satellites

 2004 – Satellite launched to 'chase comet'

 In March the European Space Agency launches
the Rosetta from French Guiana. The Rosetta, carrying
the lander probe Philae, is destined to rendezvous with
Comet 67P in 2014.
 2012 – 1000 satellites orbit the Earth
 More than a thousand active satellites orbit the Earth.
The exact number of operational satellites is difficult to
determine for security reasons, but the UCS (Union of
Concerned Scientists) satellites database lists 1016
active satellites.
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History of Satellites

 2014 – Probe lands on comet

 In August the spacecraft Rosetta is the first to catch up
with a comet and land a probe - Philae - on the comet
67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko.
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History of Satellites

 25 May 2017 – World's first private orbital launch site

 Rocket Lab launches their Electron rocket from their
Mahia Peninsula based orbital launch site, in New
Zealand. Rocket Lab's Mahia facility is the world's first
private orbital launch site and is part of a program of
work to make launching a satellite more cost effective
in order to open space up to more organizations.
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History of Satellites

 21 January 2018 – New Zealand's first satellite

 Rocket Lab successfully deployed 4 small satellites on
their second test launch from Mahia. Three were for US
based corporations but the fourth 'secret satellite' was a
New Zealand effort - the Humanity Star.
 The Humanity Star is a geodesic sphere made
from carbon fiber with 65 highly reflective panels.
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What is Satellite Navigation?

 Satellite navigation is a system which makes use of
artificial satellites for providing autonomous geospatial
positioning.
 Satellite navigation systems can also provide
information regarding local time to high precision and
can aid in time synchronization.
 With the help of transmitted time signals and
electronic receivers, satellite navigation can determine
a specific location with high precision.
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What is Satellite Navigation?

 For accurately locating the position, a minimum of four
satellites would be required.
 Electronic receivers make use of signals for analyzing
the current local time to high precision.
 Satellite navigation capable of global coverage is
called a global navigation satellite system.
 The electronic receiver analyzes the time and the
distance from each of the satellites to reach the user's
receiver antenna.
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What is Satellite Navigation?

 The fourth satellite in the navigation system helps in
removing the distance ambiguity involved in the case
of three satellites. In fact, the more satellites involved
in a satellite navigation system, the higher precision
the accuracy that can be achieved.
 Satellite navigation systems are more accurate than
other navigation options. Being a broadcast system
based on radio signals, an unlimited number of people
can use it an unlimited number of times, regardless of
location. Satellite navigation systems aid in air and
sea traffic as well.
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What is Satellite Navigation?

 A satellite navigation system with global coverage
may be termed a global navigation satellite
system (GNSS).

Global Operational GNSSs as of December 2016:

 Global Positioning System (United States)
 GLONASS (Russia)
 BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (China)
 Galileo (European Union)
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What is Satellite Navigation?

 The European Union's Galileo GNSS is scheduled to
be fully operational by 2020. 
 China is in the process of expanding its
regional BeiDou Navigation Satellite System into the
global BeiDou-2 GNSS by 2020. 
 India, France and Japan are in the process of
developing regional navigation and augmentation
systems as well.
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Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

 Global Positioning System (GPS)

 The NAVSTAR GPS system is composed of 24
satellites, and was created by the U.S. Department of
Defense.
 It can be accessed anywhere on or near the Earth
where there is an unobstructed line-of-sight to four or
more GPS satellites.
 The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil
and commercial users worldwide and is freely
accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
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Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

 Global Satellite Navigation System (GLONASS)

 GLONASS is also composed of 24 satellites but was
developed in the Soviet Union and is operated by the
Russian Aerospace Defense Forces.
 This SatNav system is the only other navigational
system in operation with global coverage and of
comparable precision.
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Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

 Galileo (In development)

 Galileo is a global navigation system currently being developed
by the European Union and European Space Agency intended
primarily for civilian use.
 Named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei, one of the
goals is to provide a high-precision positioning system for
European nations that is independent from the Russian
GLONASS, U.S. GPS, Indian IRNSS and Chinese Compass
systems.
 The 30-satellite system is expected to be completed in 2019.
The use of the basic services will be free and open to everyone,
while the high-precision capabilities will be available for paying
commercial users and for military use.
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Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

 Compass (In development)

 Compass is a global navigation system currently being
developed in China.
 It is the second generation of its regional BeiDou
Satellite Navigation System (BDS), also known as
BeiDou-2.
 Its completion is expected in 2020 and will consist of 35
satellites.
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Regional Satellite Navigation System

 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS)

 The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) is a proposed three-
satellite regional time transfer system and Satellite Based
Augmentation System for the Global Positioning System that
would be receivable within Japan and Australia.
 QZSS is targeted at mobile applications to provide
communications-based services and positioning information. Its
three satellites, each 120° apart, are in highly-inclined, slightly
elliptical, geosynchronous orbits. Because of this, they do not
remain in the same place in the sky.
 Their ground traces are asymmetrical figure-8 patterns, created
to ensure that one is almost directly over Japan at all times.
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Regional Satellite Navigation System

 BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS)

 The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) consists of
two separate satellite constellations.
 The first is a limited test system that has been operating
since 2000 known as BeiDou-1.
 The BeiDou-1 consists of three satellites and offers
limited coverage and applications.
 Its navigation services have been mainly for customers in
China and neighboring regions.
 The second generation is a full-scale global navigation
system that is currently under construction and will be
known as Compass, or BeiDou-2.
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Regional Satellite Navigation System

 Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System

(IRNSS)
 Operational name is Navigation Indian Constellation
(NAVIC)
 The Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System
(IRNSS) is a regional satellite navigation system being
developed by the Indian Space Research Organization.
 IRNSS will provide standard service for civilian use and
an encrypted restricted service for authorized users
(military).
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Comparison of Different SatNav

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Satellite Orbits
 Satellites are launched and orbited for a variety of
purposes. The most common application is
communication in which the satellite is used as a
repeater.
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Satellite Orbits
Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning
 The ability to launch a satellite and keep it in orbit
depends upon following well-known physical and
mathematical laws called orbital dynamics.
 In order for a satellite to go into orbit around the
earth, it must have some forward motion.
 When a satellite is launched, it is given both vertical
and forward motion.
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Satellite Orbits
Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning
 Forward motion produces inertia, which tends to keep
the satellite moving in a straight line
 Gravity tends to pull the satellite toward the earth.
 The inertia of the satellite is equalized by the earth’s
gravitational pull.
 The satellite constantly changes its direction from a
straight line to a curved line to rotate about the earth.
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Satellite Orbits
Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning
 The goal is to give the satellite acceleration and speed
that will exactly balance the gravitational pull.
 Communication satellites are typically about 22,300
miles from the earth.
 A satellite needs to travel about 6800 mi/hr in order to
stay in orbit at that distance.
 A satellite rotates around the earth in either a circular or
elliptical path.
 A satellite rotates in an orbit that forms a plane that
passes through the center of gravity of the earth called
geocenter.
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Satellite Orbits

Figure 1: Satellite orbits. (a) Circular orbit. (b) Elliptical orbit.

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Satellite Orbits

Figure 2: The orbital plane passes through the geocenter.

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Satellite Orbits
Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning: Satellite
Height
 In a circular orbit, the height is the distance of the
satellite from the earth.
 In geometric calculations, the height is the distance
between the center of the earth and the satellite.
 When the satellite is an elliptical orbit, the center of the
earth is one of the focal points of the ellipse.
 The two points of greatest interest are the highest point
above the earth (the apogee) and the lowest point (the
perigee).
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Satellite Orbits

Figure 3: Elliptical orbit showing apogee and perigee.

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Satellite Orbits
Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning: Satellite
Speed
 Satellite speed varies depending upon the distance of
the satellite from the earth.
 For a circular orbit the speed is constant, but for an
elliptical orbit the speed varies depending upon the
height.
 Low earth satellites of about 100 mi in height have a
speed of about 17,500 mi/hr.
 Very high satellites such as communication satellites
typically travel at speeds of about 6800 mi/hr.
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Satellite Orbits
Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning: Satellite
Period
 The period is the time it takes for a satellite to complete
one orbit.
 This time is also called the sidereal period.
 One revolution is the period of time that elapses
between the successive passes of the satellite over a
given meridian of earth longitude.
 Typical rotational periods range from about 1 ½ h for a
100-mi height to 24 h for a 22,300-mi height.
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Satellite Orbits
Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning: Angle of
Inclination
 The angle of inclination of a satellite orbit is the angle
formed between the line that passes through the center
of the earth and the north pole, and a line that passes
through the center of the earth but that is also
perpendicular to the orbital plane.
 It is also defined as the angle between the equatorial
plane and the satellite orbital plane as the satellite
enters the northern hemisphere.
 When the satellite has an angle of inclination, the orbit
is said to be ascending or descending.
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Satellite Orbits

Figure 4: (a) Angle of inclination. (b) Ascending and descending orbits.

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Satellite Orbits
Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning: Angle of
Elevation
 The angle of elevation of a satellite is the angle that
appears between the line from the earth station’s
antenna to the satellite and the line between the earth
station’s antenna and the earth’s horizon.
 Noise in the atmosphere contributes to poor
performance.
 The minimum practical angle of elevation for good
satellite performance is 5°.
 The higher the angle of elevation, the better.
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Satellite Orbits

Figure 5: Angle of elevation.

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Satellite Orbits
Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning:
Geosynchronous Orbits
 To use a satellite for communication relay or repeater
purposes, the ground station antenna must be able to
follow or track the satellite as it passes overhead.
 Depending upon the height and speed of the satellite,
the earth station is able to use it only for communication
purposes for that short period when it is visible.
 The best solution to this problem is to launch a
synchronous or geostationary satellite.
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Satellite Orbits
Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning:
Geosynchronous Orbits
 In a geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO), the satellite
rotates about the earth in exactly 24 h.
 It appears to be fixed or stationary. The antenna is
pointed at the satellite and remains in a fixed position,
making continuous communication possible.
 Most communication satellites in use today are of the
geosynchronous variety.
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Satellite Orbits
Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning: Position
Coordinates in Latitude and Longitude
 The satellite location is specified by a point on the earth
directly below the satellite known as the subsatellite
point (SSP).
 Latitude is defined as the angle between the line drawn
from a given point on the surface of the earth to the
point at the center of the earth called the geocenter
and the line between the geocenter and the equator.
 The prime meridian is used as a reference point for
measuring longitude.
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Satellite Communication Systems

 Communication satellites are not originators of

information to be transmitted.
 Satellites are relay stations for earth sources.
 The transmitting station sends the information to the
satellite, which in turn retransmits it to the receiving
station.
 The satellite in this application is what is generally
known as a repeater.
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Satellite Communication Systems

 Repeaters and Transponders

 An earth station transmits information to the satellite.
 The satellite contains a receiver that picks up the
transmitted signal, amplifies it, and translates it on
another frequency.
 The signal on the new frequency is then retransmitted
to the receiving stations back on earth.
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Satellite Communication Systems

 Repeaters and Transponders

 The original signal being transmitted from the earth
station to the satellite is called the uplink.
 The retransmitted signal from the satellite to the
receiving stations is called the downlink.
 The transmitter-receiver combination in the satellite is
known as a transponder.
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Satellite Communication Systems

Figure 6: Using a satellite as a microwave relay link.

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Satellite Communication Systems

 Repeaters and Transponders: Frequency Allocations

 Most communication satellites operate in the microwave
frequency spectrum.
 The microwave spectrum is divided up into frequency
bands that have been allocated to satellites as well as
other communication services such as radar.
 The most widely used satellite communication band is
the C band.
 The C band uplink frequencies are in the 5.925- to
6.425-GHz range and the downlink frequencies are in
the 3.7- to 4.2-GHz range.
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Satellite Communication Systems

 Frequency bands used in satellite communication:

BAND FREQUENCY
P 225–390 MHz
J 350–530 MHz
L 1530–2700 MHz
S 2500–2700 MHz
C 3400–6425 MHz
X 7250–8400 MHz
Ku 10.95–14.5 GHz
Ka 17.7–31 GHz
Q 36–46 GHz
V 46–56 GHz
W 56–100 GHz
 61

Satellite Subsystems
 All satellite communication systems consist of two
basic parts, the satellite or spacecraft and two or more
earth stations.
 The satellite performs the function of a radio repeater
or relay station.
 Two or more earth stations may communicate with
one another through the satellite rather than directly
point-to-point on the earth.
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Satellite Subsystems
 The heart of a communication satellite is the
communication subsystem.
 This subsystem is a set of transponders that receive
the uplink signals and retransmit them to earth.
 A transponder is a repeater that implements a
wideband communication channel capable of carrying
many simultaneous communication transmissions.
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Satellite Subsystems

Figure 7: General block diagram of a communication satellite.

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Satellite Subsystems
Communication Subsystems
 The main payload on a communication satellite is the
communication subsystem that performs the function of
a repeater or relay station.
 An earth station takes the signals to be transmitted,
known as baseband signals, and modulates a
microwave carrier.
 The three most common baseband signals are voice,
video, or computer data.
 Most modern satellites contain at least 12 transponders.
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Satellite Subsystems
Communication Subsystems: Multichannel
Configurations
 Virtually all modern communication satellites contain
multiple transponders.
 This permits many more signals to be received and
transmitted.
 Each transponder operates on a separate frequency,
but its bandwidth is wide enough to carry multiple
channels of voice, video, and digital information.
 The two multichannel architectures used with
communication satellites are broadband and fully
channelized.
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Satellite Subsystems
Power Subsystem
 Today virtually every satellite uses solar panels for its
basic power source.
 Solar panels are large arrays of photocells connected in
various series and parallel circuits to create a powerful
source of direct current.
 A key requirement is that the solar panels always be
pointed toward the sun.
 Solar panels generate a direct current that is used to
operate the various components of the satellite and to
charge secondary batteries that act as a buffer.
 67

Satellite Subsystems
Telemetry, Command, and Control Subsystems
 All satellites have a telemetry, command, and control
(TC&C) subsystem that allows a ground station to
monitor and control conditions in the satellite.
 The telemetry system is used to report the status of the
onboard subsystems to the ground station.
 A command and control system permits the ground
station to control the satellite.
 Most satellites contain a small digital computer that acts
as a central control unit for the entire satellite.
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Satellite Subsystems
Applications Subsystems
 The applications subsystem is made up of the special
components that enable the satellite to fulfill its intended
purpose.
 For a communication satellite, this subsystem is made
up of the transponders.
 An observation satellite may use TV cameras or
infrared sensors to pick up various conditions on earth
and in the atmosphere. This information is then
transmitted back to earth by a special transmitter
designed for this purpose.
 69

Ground Stations
 The ground station, or earth station, is the terrestrial
base of the system.
 The ground station communicates with the satellite
to carry out the designated mission.
 The earth station consists of five major subsystems:
1. The antenna subsystem
2. The receive subsystem
3. The transmit subsystem
4. The ground control equipment (GCE) subsystem
5. Power subsystem
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Ground Stations
Antenna Subsystems
 All earth stations have a relatively large parabolic dish
antenna that is used for sending and receiving signals
to and from the satellite.
 Earth station dishes were 80 to 100 ft or more in
diameter, however, with higher power transmission,
antennas as small as 18 in in diameter are used.
 The antenna in an earth station must be steerable. That
is, it must be possible to adjust its azimuth and
elevation so that the antenna can be properly aligned
with the satellite.
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Ground Stations
Receive Subsystems
 The downlink is the receive subsystem of the earth
station.
 It usually consists of very low noise preamplifiers that
take the small signal received from the satellite and
amplify it to a level suitable for further processing.
 The signal is then demodulated and sent on to other
parts of the communication system.
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Ground Stations
Receive Subsystems: Receiver Circuits
 The receive subsystem consists of the LNA, down
converters, and related components.
 The purpose of the receive subsystem is to amplify the
downlink satellite signal and translate it to a suitable
intermediate frequency.
 The IF signal is then demodulated and demultiplexed as
necessary to generate the original baseband signals.
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Ground Stations

Figure 8: Dual-conversion down converters. (a) RF tuning. (b) IF tuning.

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Ground Stations
Receiver Ground Control Equipment
 The receiver ground control equipment (GCE)
consists of one or more racks of equipment used for
demodulating and demultiplexing the received signals.
 The down converters provide initial channelization by
transponder, and the demodulators and demultiplexing
equipment process the 70-MHz IF signal into the
original baseband signals.
 Other intermediate signals may be developed as
required by the application.
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Ground Stations
Transmitter Subsystems
 The uplink is the transmitting subsystem of the earth
station.
 It consists of all the electronic equipment that takes the
signal to be transmitted, amplifies it, and sends it to the
antenna.
 In a communication system, the signals to be sent to
the satellite might be TV programs, multiple telephone
calls, or digital data from a computer.
 Signals modulate a carrier, are amplified, and sent to an
antenna via waveguides, combiners, and diplexers.
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Ground Stations
Transmit Ground Control Equipment
 The transmit subsystem begins with the baseband
signals, which are first fed to a multiplexer, if multiple
signals are to be carried by a single transponder.
 The multiplexer output is then fed to a modulator.
 In analog systems, a wideband frequency modulator is
normally used.
 In digital systems, analog signals are first digitized with
PCM converters. The resulting serial digital output is
then used to modulate a QPSK modulator.
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Ground Stations
Power Subsystems
 Most earth stations receive their power from the normal
ac mains. Standard power supplies convert the ac
power to the dc voltages required to operate all
subsystems.
 Most earth stations have backup power systems that
take over if an ac power failure occurs.
 The backup power system may consist of a diesel
engine driving an ac generator, which automatically
starts when ac power fails.
 Smaller systems may use uninterruptible power
supplies (UPS), which derive their main power from
batteries.
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Ground Stations
Telemetry and Control Subsystems
 The telemetry equipment consists of a receiver and the
recorders and indicators that display the telemetry
signals.
 The signal may be received by the main antenna or a
separate telemetry antenna.
 A separate receiver on a frequency different from that of
the communication channels is used for telemetry
purposes.
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Ground Stations
Telemetry and Control Subsystems
 In some satellite systems where communication is not
the main function, some instrumentation may be a part
of the ground station.
 Instrumentation is a general term for all the electronic
equipment used to deal with the information transmitted
back to the earth station.
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Ground Stations
Very Small-Aperture Terminal
 A very small-aperture terminal (VSAT) is a miniature
low-cost satellite ground station.
 These units are extremely small and mount on the top
or side of a building and in some versions even fit into a
suitcase.
 Costs range from a few thousand dollars to no more
than about $6000 today.
 They can be installed very quickly by plugging them in
and pointing the antenna.
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Ground Stations
Very Small-Aperture Terminal
 The most common application of VSATs today is in
connecting remote company or organization sites to a
main computer system.
 Gas stations and retail stores use VSATs as point-of-sale
(PoS) terminals to transmit sales transaction information
to the home office, check customer credit cards, and relay
inventory data.
 Tollbooths using SpeedPass and other radio-frequency
identification (RFID) of vehicles for tolls use VSATs.
 The settop box receiver used by consumers for Direct
Broadcast Satellite (DBS) TV reception is a receive-only
(RO) VSAT.
 82

Satellite Applications
 Communication: The main application for satellites
today is in communication. Communication satellites
act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable
long-distance communication worldwide.
 Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service: This is a TV
signal distribution system designed to distribute
signals directly to consumers.
 83

Satellite Applications
 Satellite Cell Phones. Satellite-based cellular
telephone service is under development. The
proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to
perform the relay services to the main telephone
system or to make connection directly between any
two cellular telephones using the system.
 84

Satellite Applications
 Digital Satellite Radio: One of the newest satellite
applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital
audio radio service (DARS).
 This service provides hundreds of channels of music,
news, sports, and talk radio to car portable and home
radios.
 It provides full continuous coverage of the station you
select wherever you are in the United States.
 Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality
stereo sound that is immune to noise.
 The satellites transmit other information such as song
title and artist, type of music, and other data, which are
displayed on a LCD screen.
 85

Satellite Applications
 Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and
transmit what they see back to ground stations for a
wide variety of purposes, including military
intelligence, meteorological applications, and
mapping.
 Satellite navigation systems can provide global
coverage unavailable with land-based systems
satellites.
 86

Global Positioning System

 The Global Positioning System (GPS), also known
as Navstar, is a satellite-based navigation system that
can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to
pinpoint his or her location on earth.
 GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the
Department of Defense as a continuous global radio
navigation system.
 The GPS system consists of three major segments:
the space segment, the control segment, and the user
segment.
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Global Positioning System

Space Segment
 The space segment is the constellation of satellites
orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which
send highly accurate timing information to GPS
receivers on earth.
 The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3
active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4
satellites each.
 88

Global Positioning System

Space Segment
 Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate atomic
clocks.
 These clocks are used to generate a unique
pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that
is transmitted to earth.
 The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded
ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit.
89
 90

Global Positioning System

Figure 9: The GPS space segment.

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Global Positioning System

Control Segment
 The control segment of the GPS system refers to the
various ground stations that monitor the satellites and
provide control and update information.
 The master control station is operated by the U.S. Air
Force in Colorado Springs.
 Four additional monitoring and control stations
constantly monitor the satellites and collect range
information from each.
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Global Positioning System

Control Segment
 The information is sent back to the master control
station in Colorado, where all the information is
collected and position data on each satellite
calculated.
 The master control station then transmits new
ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-
band uplink once per day.
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Global Positioning System

GPS Receivers
 A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS
signals, decode them, and then compute the location of
the receiver.
 The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude,
longitude, and altitude information and/or a map of the
area.
 The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular
handheld portable type, not much larger than an
oversized handheld calculator.
 94

Global Positioning System

GPS Receivers
 The receiver performs a time multiplexing operation on
the four satellites within view of the receiver.
 The data is extracted from each of the four satellites
and stored in the receiver’s memory.
 Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiver’s
position.
 If data from a fourth satellite is available, altitude can be
calculated.
 95

Global Positioning System

Figure 10: A GPS receiver.

 96

Global Positioning System

Figure 11: How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver.

 97

Global Positioning System

GPS Applications
 The primary application of the GPS is military and
related navigation.
 GPS is used by all services for ships, aircraft, and
ground troops.
 Most civilian applications also involve navigation, which
is usually marine or aviation-related.
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Global Positioning System

GPS Applications
 Commercial applications include surveying,
mapmaking, and construction.
 Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and
delivery companies, taxi, bus, and train transportation.
 Police, fire, ambulance, and forest services also use
GPS.
 A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers.
In this sport, one team hides an item or “treasure” and
then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find
the treasure within a given time.