IT Concepts

Chapter: 02
Organization of Computer System
Muhammad Babar
Organization of Computer System
 The internal structure of the computer system
differs from one system model to another
system model

 The basic Organization remains the same for

all computers

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Units of Computer System
 Input Unit
 Processing Unit
 Output Unit
 Storage Unit

3
Components of Computer System

Input Process Output

Stora
ge

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1. Input Unit
 Input is the process of entering and translating
data into machine readable form so that it can
be processed by a computer in order to
produce the output
 The data entered into the computer known as
input
 Input device is a device through which data
are entered and transformed into machine
readable form

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Types of Input Device

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Trackball
 Joystick
 Touch Screen
 Track Point
 Touch Pad
 Light Pen
 Scanner
 BCR

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Keyboard:
 The keyboard is an essential input device
 It has typewriter like key with some
additional keys
 There are different types of keyboard used
with the computer system have a certain
number of features in common:
 Standard typewriter keys.
 Function Keys.
 Special Purpose Keys.
 Cursor movement Keys.
 Numeric Keys.
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Mouse:
 Mouse is a hand held input device
connected to the computer by a small cable

 Doug Engelbart developed the mouse for

the first time in 1960s

 The mouse which has a ball on its

underside is rolled on a flat surface

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 The rolling movement corresponding to the
movement of the cursor on the screen
 Processing various keyboard keys can also move
the cursor
 We can communicate to the computer by
pressing a button on top of the mouse
 The mouse has three buttons but the left most is
commonly used

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Track Ball
 A variation on the mouse is the trackball
 The trackball is like an upside-down mouse
 It has a ball on the top and you can roll the
ball directly with your hand
 The popularity of the trackball raised with the
advent of the laptop computers
 Trackballs are often built-in on portable
computers, but they can also be used as
separate input devices

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Joystick
 A joystick is an input device that enables you to
move cursor, word, line, page, object and
pictures from one point to another on the
display screen
 A joystick uses a lever to control the position of
the cursor
 Ti performs the same function as of arrow keys
in the keyboard, but it is fat and gives you eight-
direction movement as compared to four
 It is mostly used in video games.

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Touch Screen
 The touch screen registers input when a finger
or other object comes in contact with the
screen
 Two touch screen techniques involve infrared
beams and ultrasonic acoustic waves
 Touch screen have long been used in military
applications
 Today because they have been less
expensive, touch screens are found in many
applications

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18
Track Point
 The mouse is not practical for people using a
portable computer in a small space
 Some notebook computers provide a mouse
substitute called a track point
 A button that protrudes from the middle of the
keyboard
 With a track point you imitate mouse
movements by pushing the button from side to
side

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Touch Pad
 Many laptop computers use a touchpad in
front of the keyboard

 You move your finger on the pad to move the

cursor on the screen

 When you want to click, you can tap the pad

or use the buttons in front of the pad, which
work like mouse buttons

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Light Pen
 The light pen looks like an ordinary pen, but its
tip is light sensitive detector
 The light pen uses a light-sensitive
photoelectric cell to signal screen positions to
the computer
 Light pens are frequently used by graphic
designers and drafting engineers.

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Scanner
 scanner works very much like a
photocopier, but a scanner digitizes the
information into a computer, not onto the
other piece of paper
 In a process called imaging, a scanner
converts a drawing, a picture, on any
document into computer recognizable form

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 Scanners take an electronic picture of the printed
page, break each image into thousands of light
and dark dots that can be stored in the computer

 Then software in the computer tells it how to

interpret the dot patterns

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 Scanners consist of two components
 First a data capturing subsystem light-up the document
so the image can be recorded
 Then an image-processing subsystem uses
sophisticated software to convert the optical images
into digital form and store the date in a file

 Scanners come in both handheld and desktop

models

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BCR (Bar Coded Reader)
 Data coded in the form of light and dark lines
or bars are known as bar codes

 Bar codes are used particularly by the retail

trade for labeling goods

 BCR is a device used for reading bar coded

data

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 Bar code reading is performed by laser beam
scanner, which is linked to the computer

 Interpretation of the code is based on the

width of lines rather than the location of the
bar code

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2. Processing Unit
 CPU
 Central Processing Unit
 Central: because it is the center for data
processing

 Processor: because it process/execute data

 Unit: it is a chip which contain several internal

parts
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34
 CPU is main unit inside the computer which is
responsible for events that occur inside the
Computer system

 The operation performed by the Processor is

called Instruction-Set

 Instruction set determine the Machine

language for CPU

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 The more complex Instruction set the more the
CPU working slowly

 CPU differ from one another by Instruction-set

 If same program execute/run on the two

different computers then these computers are
called Compatible

 IBM & Apple computers are not compatible

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CPU Internal parts

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

2. Registers/ Memory
3. Clock Rate
4. Control Unit (CU)

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Inside the CPU

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1. ALU
The arithmetic and logic unit is the part where
actual computations take place
 It consists of circuits which perform arithmetic
operations e.g.
 addition,
 substation,
 multiplication,
 division

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 These operation are performed on the data
received from the memory
 ALU is capable to compare numbers:
 less than,
 equal to,
 greater than

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2. Registers
 Registers are a group of data cells used for
RAM/ Primary Memory data loading into it

 Data is loaded from RAM into Registers and

then moves to ALU for Processing

 Registers are high speed memory that

hold/save data for quick processing

 It also hold the intermediate level result

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 Register Types:
 General Registers
 This portion keep active program data
 Special Purpose Registers
 This portion keeps the data for the further/next processing

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3. Clock Unit
 All operation performed in a computer system
are consist of thousand of separate
Instruction/ Commands
 These Instruction/ Commands should follow a
specific time-intervals
 These time-intervals are generated and
controlled by clock unit
 Every operation takes place with a clock pulse

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 The faster the clock the faster the computer
processing
 The clock rate (speed) is measured in Hertz
 KHz
 MHz
 GHz
 In older system the clock unit is external to the
CPU
 But in New computer Models it exist inside
CPU
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4. Control Unit
 Control Unit is responsible for managing and
coordination the entire computer system

 It does not perform any kind of processing on

the data but it control and direct the input

 In other words: it is central controller for all of

the activities that occurs inside CPU
(internal)or outside (external) of Computer
system
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 It interprets the instructions fetched into the
computer,
 determines type of data
 What operation to apply on the data
 where to store the data after the operation
 send the control signals to the devices involved in
the execution of the instructions
 To whom give the output (Monitor/ Printer)

 Also control & order the output devices for

displaying the result
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3. Output Unit
 Outputis the process of translating data
from machine readable form into a form
understandable to humans

 OutputUnit presents the results of machine

operations in
 printed or
 visual form, or
 on disks
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 output device allows a computer to communicate
information to human by accepting data from the
computer and transforming them into a usable
form
 act as a communicating link between a computer
and the user

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 Function of Output Unit:
 It accept the result produced by the computer
which is in code form
 It convert these code results to Human acceptable
form
 It displays the result to the user

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 The output that is obtained from a
computer system has two types

1. Soft Copy
2. Hard Copy

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Soft Copy
 The results (text/graphics) appear on
displayed screen are known as soft copy

 It is a transparent form of output and is lost

when the computer is turned off

 if the data needed to create a soft copy have

been saved on disk or tapes, the soft copy
can be reproduced on the screen any time

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Hard Copy
 The results (text/Graphics) printed on paper
is known as Hard Copy

 Itis considered to a permanent copy and

can be retained even if the computer is
turned off

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Soft Copy Devices:
 The main soft copy device is the monitor
device
 A monitor is television like device used to
display data or information.
 Monitors allow the users to view the
results of processing

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 There are two main types of monitors which are:

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

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1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
 On this type of screen, a data image is
produced by an electron beam

 The most common type of CRT has a

display screen of 25 lines of 80 characters
each (Other sizes are also available)

 The CRT’s screen display is made of

small picture elements, called pixels
 The smaller the pixels, the better the image
clarity.
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2. LCD
 The most common type of flat-panel display
is the liquid-crystal display (LCD)
 LCD uses a clear liquid chemical trapped
in tiny pocket of liquid is covered both front
and back by very thin wires
 The advantages of the LCD monitors are:
 low power consumption
 low cost and
 small size
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Hard Copy devices
 Among a wide variety of hard copy output
devices printers, and plotters are used the
most.
1. Printers
2. Plotters

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 A printer is an output device that can
convert electrical signals into printers on
papers and provides a permanent visual
record of data
 The results we get through the printer is
called printout or hard copy
 There are two main types of printers.
1. Impact printers
2. Non-impact printers

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1. Impact Printer
 An impact printer makes contact with the
paper
 It usually forms the print image by
pressing an inked ribbon against the
paper using a hammer or pins
 Prints one character at a time at speeds
10 to 500 characters per second
 Thus, form the slowest class of printers.
Following are some impact printers:
a) Dot Matrix Printer
b) Line Printer

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a. Dot Matrix Printers
 Thedot-matrix uses print heads containing
from 9 to 24 pins

 These pins produce patterns of dots on the

paper to form the individual character

 The24-pin dot-matrix printer produces

more dots than a 9-pin dot-matrix printer,
which results in much clearer characters
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 The user can produce a color output with a dot-
matrix printer (the user will change the black
ribbon with a ribbon that has color stripes)

 Dot-matrix printers are inexpensive and typically

print at speeds of 100-600 characters per second.

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b. Line Printer
 In business where large amount of material
are printed, the character at a time printers
are slow
 users need line at a time line printers
 Line printers or line-at-a-time printers use
special mechanism that can print a whole
line at once

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 They can typically print in the range of 1200-6000
lines per minute.
 Drum, chain, and band printers are line-at-a-time
printers.

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2. Non-Impact Printer
 Non-impact printers do not use a striking
device to produce characters on the paper
 these printers do not hammer against the
paper
 Following are some non-impact printers:
1. Ink-jet Printer
2. Laser Printer

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1. Ink-Jet Printer
 Ink-jet printers work in the same fashion as
dot-matrix printers in that they form images
or characters with little dots
 However, the dots are formed by tiny drops
of ink
 Ink-jet printers form characters on paper by
spraying ink from tinny nozzles at a speed of
approximately 250 characters per second
 Several manufacturers produce color ink-jet
printers
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2. Laser Printer
A laser printer works like a photocopy
machine
 Laser printer produce images on paper by
directing a laser beam at the mirror which
bounces the beam onto the drum
 As the paper rolls by the drum, the toner is
transferred to the paper printing a letter or
other graphics on the paper

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 Laser printers use buffers that store an entire
page at a time
 When a whole page is loaded, it will be printed
 The speed of laser printer ranges from 8 to 437
pages per minute if each page contains the 48
lines

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2. Plotter
A plotter is an output device designed to
produce high-quality graphics in a variety of
colors
 The plotter is used to give very neat best
quality to the graphics
 Plotter is useful for the engineers, artists,
designers, architects to make graphics
when the size output is more than one page

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 There are two basic types of plotters:
 those that use pens and
 Drum and flatbed plotter both use the pens
 those that don’t use pens
 Electrostatic plotters don’t use the pens
 Following are types of Plotters:
1. Flatbed Plotters
2. Drum Plotters
3. Electrostatic Plotters

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Drum Plotter

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Flatbed Plotter

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Flatbed Plotter

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Electrostatic Plotters

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Electrostatic Plotter

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Memory/ Storage Devices
 The storage hardware provides the
capability/ability to store data and program
instructions.
 There are two types of storage devices.
1. Primary Storage Devices
2. Secondary Storage Devices

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Note:
 the process of entering data into storage
(primary storage or secondary storage) is
called Writing
 the process of retrieving data from primary
storage or secondary storage is called
Reading

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1. Primary storage device
 It is also known as magnetic core memory
 It is a device which stores information in the
form of binary coded data
 It is a medium capable of recording and
storing information quickly
 This device holds input data before being
processed, also results for output purposes
(after processing)

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 This memory is also known as internal memory
 The primary storage refers to the internal storage
of the computer, where program and their data
are stored temporarily storage during program
execution
 primary storage is located inside the computer
and is linked directly to the other components of
the CPU, access time to the data is very fast.

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Types of Primary Storage

i. RAM (Random Access Memory)

ii. ROM (Read Only Memory)
iii. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
iv. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory)
v. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory)
vi. Buffer
vii. Cache Memory
viii. Flash Memory

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i. RAM
 Random Access Memory
 RAM is the part of primary storage where
data and program instructions are held
temporarily while being manipulating or
executing
 The information stored in RAM can be
accessed easily and randomly and hence
called primary memory
 The data stored in this part of the memory
can be read, changed or erased completely
and thus refer to Read and write Memory
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RAM

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92
Old Ram

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 RAM is also known as temporary memory
because, RAM depends on a steady supply of
electricity to maintain data storage
 means that the information stored in it is lost
when the computer is switched off or the light
goes off
 RAM is also referred to as a Volatile Memory
because stored data disappears whenever the
computer is switched off.

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 When the computer is powered on, RAM
takes the data and the programs to be
used. The access time for the data stored
in RAM generally ranges from a
microsecond (million part of a second) to a
few nanoseconds (billion part of a second).
It is also called as main memory.

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ii. ROM
 Read Only Memory

 As the name implies the contents of the

ROM, the data can be accessed or read
any time but can not be changed or
removed or written to it

 ROM is referred to as Nonvolatile storage

medium
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 the information stored in ROM is permanent and
is not lost due to light failure or switching off of
the computer
 ROM may contain information about how to start
the computer and even instruction to the entire
operating system
 Bootstrap (boot startup Program)
 IPL (initial Program Loader)
 The ROM contents are unchangeable and
permanent

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ROM-BIOS: Basic Input Output System

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Inside BIOS:

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iii. PROM
 Programmable Read Only Memory
 PROM in the beginning are empty chips
 Nothing programmed or recorded inside PROM
 Thedata is recorded on them with special
programming device, which then becomes
permanent like ROM
 PROMs are normally programmed by the
manufacturer who records dedicated
programs such as graphics and games
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PROM

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iv. EPROM
 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
 An EPROM chip has the feature of PROM
 (means EPROM are also empty chips like PROM)
 The data is also recorded on them with special
programming devices, but the difference is
that the data can be erased and
reprogrammed whenever it is required
 The data is erased with ultraviolet light

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EPROM:

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v. EEPROM
 ElectricallyErasable Programmable Read
Only Memory
 EEPROM has all the characteristics of
EPROM except the difference of erasing
technique i.e.
 it uses electrical pulses instead of ultraviolet
light for erasing.
 Erasing of data can be achieved by using
keyboard commands without removing
chips physically from the computer
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vi. Buffer
 It’s a temporary holding/saving memory for
Data
 It may be built into devices used to input/
output data
 input & output device are much slower than
CPU
 Buffer act as intermediary between CPU & any
other input/ output devices e.g.
 CPU to Printer/NIC/Scanner/Modem/Monitor
 It’s a volatile memory
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vii. Cache Memory
 Also known as High speed Buffer
 Its very High speed memory used to speed of
the Processor
 by making available Programs & data to CPU
 The speed of CPU is high than main memory
or any other device
 Cache memory is technique used to
harmonize the speed of devices
 The speed of CPU with the speed of Main memory

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 Cache used to store temporary
 segments of Programs/data currently being
executed and or
 data frequently needed in executing program
 It’s a volatile memory

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viii. Flash Memory
 It’s a Nonvolatile memory
 Flash memory permanently store the data
 Secondary memory also store the data
permanently but they much slower than Flash
Memory
 used in Phones, iphones, flight recorder
devices, Notebook computers, handheld
devices

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Flash Memory

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2. Secondary Storage Device
 The term secondary storage is also known
as auxiliary storage, external storage,
backup storage or long-term storage
 A secondary storage is a device into which
information can be
 introduced (input),
 stored and
 the information obtained
 The information can be erased.

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 This storage device designed to retain data
and instructions in a more permanent form
 means that computers have the ability to store
 their programs,
 the input data and
 the intermediate and
 final results of its calculations permanently

111
 Secondary storage is non-volatile,
 meaning that the data and instructions remain stored
even when the computer is turned off

 In this unit, data can be permanently stored

usually in the form of magnetize spot on
magnetic material
 It contains vast mass of data a computer can
deal with
 Data is recorded in the form of binary digits either
1 or 0 known as bits

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Functions of Secondary storage
devices
1. To provide long-term storage to data and
programs, which are not being executed

2. To give additional memory to the computer to

save data and provide backup to primary
memory

3. To provide permanent storage so that

electricity failure or switching off of the
computer does not harm or lose the data.

113
Types of Secondary Storage Devices
 There are several types of secondary
storage devices in use
 They each have advantages and
disadvantages
 Some are efficient but too expensive for many
computer applications
 Some have extra large capacity, others are
fast.

114
 three types of secondary storage devices:

i. Magnetic Tape
ii. Magnetic Disk
iii. Optical Technology

115
i. Magnetic Tape
 Magnetic tape was introduced in 1957
 The development of magnetic tape was
stimulated by the search for a faster, more
convenient, and more cost effective
means than punched cards
 magnetic tape is ½ or ¼ inch wide
 produced in a variety of ranging from 200
to 3,600 feet

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 A modern tape storage can store the equivalent
of more than 2.25 million punched card

 Following are the types of Magnetic Tape.

a. Reel-to-reel Tape
b. Cassette Tape

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a. Reel to Reel tape

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b. Cassette Tape

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Magnetic Disk
 The advantages of magnetic disk over
magnetic tape are:
1. The ability to access the data stored on it
directly
2. The ability to hold more data in a smaller
space
3. The ability to perform faster data transfer
speeds.

120
Types of Magnetic Disks

 two types of magnetic disks
i. Floppy Disk
ii. Hard Disk

121
i. Floppy Disks
 One of the most commonly used storage
media is floppy disk
 A floppy diskette also called simply a
diskette or disk
 It has been around since the early 1970s
and was originally 8 inches diameter.
 They are often referred to “floppy”
because they are made of flexible
material

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Floppy disk

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 The disk is enclosed in a protective jacket-either
paper or plastic-lined with a soft material
 The diskette sizes are:
1. 8-inch
2. 5½-inch
3. 3½-inch

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 The initial diskette introduced by IBM was
 8 inches in diameter
 It was the standard for many years
 The use of 5½-inch diskette by IBM in their
personal computer system in 1981
 Since the Apple introduced the 3½-inch
diskette in 1984 and
 IBM switched to this size in 1987 in its PS/2
microcomputer system

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 Although the 3½-inch diskettes
 are smaller in size, they are capable of storing more
data than 5½-inch diskettes and
 they are also covered by a hard plastic jacket than a
paper jacket.
 In initial stage, the diskettes were single-sided
but nowadays diskette disks are double-sided
disks

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Floppy disks

127
ii. Hard disk
 when IBM first invented the hard disk in
1954
 the capacity of which was only 5MB
 25 years later, Seagate Technology
introduced the first hard disk drive for
personal computers
 which had the capacity of 40MB and
 data transfer rate of 625 KBps

128
 A later version of the company’s ST506 interface
increased both capacity and speed
 Its hard to believe that as recently as the late
1980s 100MB of hard disk space was considered
generous.
 Today, this would be totally insufficient, hardly to
install the operating system alone,
 let alone a huge application software such as
Microsoft Office.
 today’s hard disks are by GBs even TB

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Hard disk

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Inside Hard disk

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132
Inside HDD

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iii. Optical Technology
 Optical technology involves the use of the
laser beams

 In this technology, a laser hit a layer of

metallic material spread over the surface of
a disk

 heat from the laser tiny (small) spots/pits

on the disc surface that actually identify
that the data is being exist

135
 When these optical discs are placed on a disc
playback devices/ Disk Drives,
 To read the data the laser scans the disc
 a beam of laser light is used to read the pit pattern and
 convert these pit pattern into the audio/visual signals
needed to produce sounds and pictures

136
 The capacity of optical disc systems is large as
compared to most magnetic disk storage devices

 This technology promises a storage capacity in

access of 100 GB for a single 12-inch disc

 A 5¼-inch disc the same size as a diskette can

store between 800 MB and 1 GB

137
Types of Optical Discs:

1. CD-ROM
2. CD-R
3. WORM
4. EOD
5. CD-RW
6. DVD

138
i. CD-ROM
 Compact Disc-Read-Only Memory
 Most popular and least expensive type of
optical disk
 Mostly the data on the CD-Rom is written
 Once the data written by the Manufacturer of
disk
 The user is not able to:
 Write the data
 Change the data
 Erase the data
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CD-Rom

140
CD-ROM & CD-ROM Drive

141
CD-drive

142
 Data in Written and Read via Laser beam/
Ultraviolet
 Can store up to 650MB
 Size is 120 mm in diameter
 These disk are different in speed
 Original CD-Rom transfer data rate is 150000
bps (150Kbs)
 Slow speed than Hard disk/ Floppy disk

143
ii. CD-R
 Compact Disc-Readable
 Laser is used to write the data inside the CD-R
 These disc are write once
 Once the data written to CD-R then user is not
able to write, change, delete the data
 Less expensive disc

144
iii. WORM
 Write once, Read Many
 Once the disc is written the data can be read
many times but can not be altered, delete
 This technology introduced in 1980
 Mainly used for saving of large amount of
sensitive data of organizations
 WORM discs are imprinted by Manufacturer

145
iv. Erasable Optical disc/EOD
 The discs are an alternative to the large
capacity hard disks
 In contrast to CD-ROM and CD-R erasable
discs can be changed and erased
 Data is written or read by using laser beam
 Used to backup fixed hard disks

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v. CD-RW
 Compact disc-Rewritable
 These are Recordable CDs format that
provides full Read/Write capabilities
 These are more expensive than other CDs

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vi. DVD
 Digital video disc
 Digital versatile disc
 Capable of storing more data up to 17GB with
data transfer rate more than 12Mbps (equal to
Hard disk speed)
 DVDs are accessed by DVD Drives not by
CD-Drives
 While DVD drives can play CD and DVD

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DVD

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DVD

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DVD drive

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Computer Software
 Software means a sequence of instruction
given to computer to perform a specific task
 Software consist of step by step instruction
that direct the computer device to complete a
function
 In other words: we can say that the set of
instruction that
 take the data from input devices,
 manipulate and process the data,
 then sent it to the output
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 Software are the controller of
 Computer Hardware
 Other computer Software
 Programmer:
 the person who write the computer Program
(instruction set) by using different kinds of
LANGUAGES
 Programs written in computer languages are
known as Software

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 Computer Software:
1. Computer Language
2. System Software
3. Application Software

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Software Types

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1. Computer Languages
 Language is the source of communication
 To communicate with the computer, user need
to use the language that computer can
understand
 Divided into two types:
 Low level languages
 High level languages

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Low level language:
 Low level languages are machine codes or
close to it
 Computer can not understand instructions
given in high level language or in English
 Computer understand and execute instruction
given in low level language
 Types of low level language:
 Machine language
 Assembly language

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High level language
 High level language are instruction/code
closer to English language
 Purpose of developing high level languages is
to enable people to write programs easily
 High level language do not directly control
computer Hardware
 HLL are translated into machine language
which then control computer hardware

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 Types of High level languages:
 Basic
 C#
 VB .NET
 PHP
 ASP
 ASP.NET
 JAVA

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2. System Software
 System software are programs which hold
instruction related with the controlling of
hardware and software of computer System
 System software acts as Controller/
Supervisor and responsible for controlling of
input, processing and output of data
 System software also known as Firmware
 This software keep record of all peripherals
equipment attached with the computer

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 Types of System Software
 Operating System
 Translator

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 Operating System:
 Set of programs that manage the computer
Hardware & Software
 Windows, Unix, Linux
 Translator
 Set of Programs that translate the Source Program
into Machine program
 Types:
 Assembler
 Compiler
 Inerpreter

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3. Application Software
 Application Software also known as Packages
 These are the software developed by Expert in
high/low level languages for Non-expert users
 After getting training in Packages a user will
become able to handle his work by computer
Program
 Purpose of developing Application software is
to facilitate all fields of life

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 Types of Application Software
 Application Packages
 Customized Packages

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Application Package
 These programs are developed by famous
software development companies
 AP are:
 Word Processor: Word Star, MS word, MS Work
 Spread sheet: lotus, excel, Quattro-pro
 Data base: Dbase, FoxPro, Oracle
 Games: speed, IGI, prince,
 Educational Medicine, Commerce,
Engineering,

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Customized Software
 The software developed according to the
requirements of and Organization

 These software are designed for specific
organization keeping in view their needs

 These software can be developed either by a

single or a group of programmer (s)

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 Types of Customized Software:
 Banking
 Defense
 Stock & Sale
 Accounts
 Library
 Education

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 End Of Chapter

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