Database Principles:

Fundamentals of Design,
Implementation, and Management
Tenth Edition

Chapter 5
Beginning Structured Query Language
(SQL)
 Objectives

In this chapter, students will learn:

• The basic commands and functions of SQL
• How to use SQL for data administration (to
create tables and indexes)
• How to use SQL for data manipulation (to add,
modify, delete, and retrieve data)
• How to use SQL to query a database for useful
information

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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Introduction to SQL

• SQL functions fit into two broad categories:

– Data definition language
– Data manipulation language
• Basic command set has vocabulary of fewer
than 100 words
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
prescribes a standard SQL
• Several SQL dialects exist

3
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 4
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 5
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Data Definition Commands

• The database model

– In this chapter, a simple database with these
tables is used to illustrate commands:
• CUSTOMER
• INVOICE
• LINE
• PRODUCT
• VENDOR
– Focus on PRODUCT and VENDOR tables

6
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 7
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Creating the Database

• Two tasks must be completed:

– Create database structure
– Create tables that will hold end-user data
• First task:
– RDBMS creates physical files that will hold
database
– Differs substantially from one RDBMS to another

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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Creating the Database (cont’d.)

• Authentication
– DBMS verifies that only registered users are
able to access database
– Log on to RDBMS using user ID and password
created by database administrator

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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 The Database Schema
• Schema
– Group of database objects that are related to

ip
each other
• CREATE SCHEMA AUTHORIZATION {creator};
Sk
– Command is seldom used directly

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 Data Types

• Data type selection is usually dictated by nature

of data and by intended use
• Supported data types:
– Number(L,D), Integer, Smallint, Decimal(L,D)
– Char(L), Varchar(L), Varchar2(L)
– Date, Time, Timestamp
– Real, Double, Float
– Interval day to hour
– Many other types
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 12
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 13
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Creating Table Structures

• Use one line per column (attribute) definition

• Use spaces to line up attribute characteristics
and constraints
• Table and attribute names are capitalized
• NOT NULL specification
• UNIQUE specification

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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Creating Table Structures (cont’d.)

• Primary key attributes contain both a NOT

NULL and a UNIQUE specification
• RDBMS will automatically enforce referential
integrity for foreign keys
• Command sequence ends with semicolon

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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 SQL Constraints

• NOT NULL constraint

– Ensures that column does not accept nulls
• UNIQUE constraint
– Ensures that all values in column are unique
• DEFAULT constraint
– Assigns value to attribute when a new row is
added to table
• CHECK constraint
– Validates data when attribute value is entered
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 SQL Indexes

• When primary key is declared, DBMS

ip
automatically creates unique index
• Often need additional indexes
Sk
• Using CREATE INDEX command, SQL indexes
can be created on basis of any selected
attribute
• Composite index
– Index based on two or more attributes
– Often used to prevent data duplication
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 Data Manipulation Commands

• INSERT
• SELECT
• COMMIT
• UPDATE
• ROLLBACK
• DELETE

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 Adding Table Rows

• INSERT
– Used to enter data into table
– Syntax:
• INSERT INTO columnname
VALUES (value1, value2, … , valueN);

19
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Adding Table Rows (cont’d.)

• When entering values, notice that:

– Row contents are entered between parentheses
– Character and date values are entered between
apostrophes
– Numerical entries are not enclosed in
apostrophes
– Attribute entries are separated by commas
– A value is required for each column
• Use NULL for unknown values
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© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Saving Table Changes

• Changes made to table contents are not

physically saved on disk until:
– Database is closed
– Program is closed
– COMMIT command is used
• Syntax:
– COMMIT [WORK];
• Will permanently save any changes made to
any table in the database
21
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Listing Table Rows

• SELECT
– Used to list contents of table
– Syntax:
SELECT columnlist
FROM tablename;
• Columnlist represents one or more attributes,
separated by commas
• Asterisk can be used as wildcard character to
list all attributes
22
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Updating Table Rows

• UPDATE
– Modify data in a table
– Syntax:
UPDATE tablename
SET columnname = expression [, columnname =
expression]
[WHERE conditionlist];
• If more than one attribute is to be updated in
row, separate corrections with commas

23
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Restoring Table Contents

• ROLLBACK
– Undoes changes since last COMMIT
– Brings data back to prechange values
• Syntax:
ROLLBACK;
• COMMIT and ROLLBACK only work with
commands to add, modify, or delete table rows

24
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Deleting Table Rows

• DELETE
– Deletes a table row
– Syntax:
DELETE FROM tablename
[WHERE conditionlist ];
• WHERE condition is optional
• If WHERE condition is not specified, all rows
from specified table will be deleted

25
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Inserting Table Rows with a
SELECT Subquery
• INSERT
– Inserts multiple rows from another table (source)
– Uses SELECT subquery
– Subquery: query embedded (or nested or inner)
inside another query
– Subquery executed first
– Syntax:
INSERT INTO tablename SELECT columnlist
FROM tablename;

26
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 SELECT Queries

• Fine-tune SELECT command by adding

restrictions to search criteria using:
– Conditional restrictions
– Arithmetic operators
– Logical operators
– Special operators

27
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Selecting Rows with
Conditional Restrictions
• Select partial table contents by placing
restrictions on rows to be included in output
– Add conditional restrictions to SELECT
statement, using WHERE clause
• Syntax:
SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[ WHERE conditionlist ] ;

28
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 29
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 30
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Selecting Rows with
Conditional Restrictions (cont’d.)
• Using comparison operators on dates
– Date procedures are often more software-
specific than other SQL procedures
• Using computed columns and column aliases
– SQL accepts any valid expressions (or formulas)
in the computed columns
– Alias
• Alternate name given to a column or table in any
SQL statement

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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Arithmetic Operators:
The Rule of Precedence
• Perform operations within parentheses
• Perform power operations
• Perform multiplications and divisions
• Perform additions and subtractions

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 Logical Operators: AND, OR, and NOT

• Searching data involves multiple conditions

• Logical operators: AND, OR, and NOT
• Can be combined
– Parentheses enforce precedence order
• Conditions in parentheses are always executed
first
• Boolean algebra: mathematical field dedicated
to use of logical operators
• NOT negates result of conditional expression
33
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Special Operators

• BETWEEN: checks whether attribute value is

within a range
• IS NULL: checks whether attribute value is null
• LIKE: checks whether attribute value matches
given string pattern
• IN: checks whether attribute value matches any
value within a value list
• EXISTS: checks if subquery returns any rows

34
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Advanced Data Definition Commands

• All changes in table structure are made by

using ALTER command
• Three options:
– ADD adds a column
– MODIFY changes column characteristics
– DROP deletes a column
• Can also be used to:
– Add table constraints
– Remove table constraints
35
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Changing a Column’s Data Type

• ALTER can be used to change data type

• Some RDBMSs do not permit changes to data
types unless column is empty

36
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Changing a Column’s Data
Characteristics
• Use ALTER to change data characteristics
• Changes in column’s characteristics are
permitted if changes do not alter the existing
data type

37
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Adding a Column
Dropping a Column
• Use ALTER to add column
– Do not include the NOT NULL clause for new
column
• Use ALTER to drop column
– Some RDBMSs impose restrictions on the
deletion of an attribute

38
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Advanced Data Updates

• UPDATE command updates only data in

existing rows
• If relationship between entries and existing
columns, can assign values to slots
• Arithmetic operators are useful in data updates
• In Oracle, ROLLBACK command undoes
changes made by last two UPDATE statements

39
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Copying Parts of Tables

• SQL permits copying contents of selected table

columns
– Data need not be reentered manually into newly
created table(s)
• First create the table structure
• Next add rows to new table using table rows
from another table

40
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Adding Primary and Foreign Key
Designations
• When table is copied, integrity rules do not
copy
– Primary and foreign keys are manually defined
on new table
• User ALTER TABLE command
– Syntax:
• ALTER TABLE tablename ADD PRIMARY
KEY(fieldname);
– For foreign key, use FOREIGN KEY in place of
PRIMARY KEY
41
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Deleting a Table from the Database

• DROP
– Deletes table from database
– Syntax:
• DROP TABLE tablename;
• Can drop a table only if it is not the “one” side
of any relationship
– Otherwise, RDBMS generates an error message
– Foreign key integrity violation

42
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Additional SELECT Query Keywords

• Logical operators work well in the query

environment
• SQL provides useful functions that:
– Count
– Find minimum and maximum values
– Calculate averages, etc.
• SQL allows user to limit queries to:
– Entries having no duplicates
– Entries whose duplicates may be grouped
43
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Ordering a Listing

• ORDER BY clause is useful when listing order

is important
• Syntax:
SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist
[WHERE conditionlist]
[ORDER BY columnlist [ASC | DESC]];
• Ascending order by default

44
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Listing Unique Values

• DISTINCT clause produces list of only values

that are different from one another
• Example:
SELECT DISTINCT V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT;
• Access places nulls at the top of the list
–Oracle places it at the bottom
–Placement of nulls does not affect list contents

45
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Aggregate Functions
• COUNT function tallies number of non-null values

ip
of an attribute
– Takes one parameter: usually a column name
• MAX and MIN find highest (lowest) value in a table
Sk
– Compute MAX value in inner query
– Compare to each value returned by the query
• SUM computes total sum for any specified
attribute
• AVG function format is similar to MIN and MAX

46
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Grouping Data

• Frequency distributions created by GROUP BY

ip
clause within SELECT statement
• Syntax:
SELECT
FROM
[WHERE
Sk columnlist
tablelist
conditionlist]
[GROUP BY columnlist]
[HAVING conditionlist]
[ORDER BY columnlist [ASC | DESC] ] ;
47
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 ip
Sk
48
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Joining Database Tables

• Joining tables is the most important distinction

ip
between relational database and other DBs
• Join is performed when data are retrieved from
Sk
more than one table at a time
– Equality comparison between foreign key and
primary key of related tables
• Join tables by listing tables in FROM clause of
SELECT statement
– DBMS creates Cartesian product of every table

49
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Joining Tables with an Alias

• Alias identifies the source table from which data

ip
are taken
• Alias can be used to identify source table
Sk
• Any legal table name can be used as alias
• Add alias after table name in FROM clause
– FROM tablename alias

50
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Recursive Joins

• Alias is especially useful when a table must be

ip
joined to itself
– Recursive query

Sk
– Use aliases to differentiate the table from itself

51
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Summary

• SQL commands can be divided into two overall

categories:
– Data definition language commands
– Data manipulation language commands
• The ANSI standard data types are supported by
all RDBMS vendors in different ways
• Basic data definition commands allow you to
create tables and indexes

52
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Summary (cont’d.)

• DML commands allow you to add, modify, and

delete rows from tables
• The basic DML commands:
– SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE,
COMMIT, and ROLLBACK
• SELECT statement is main data retrieval
command in SQL

53
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Summary (cont’d.)

• WHERE clause can be used with SELECT,

UPDATE, and DELETE statements
• Aggregate functions
– Special functions that perform arithmetic
computations over a set of rows
• ORDER BY clause
– Used to sort output of SELECT statement
– Can sort by one or more columns
– Ascending or descending order
54
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Summary (cont’d.)

• Join output of multiple tables with SELECT

statement
– Join performed every time you specify two or
more tables in FROM clause
– If no join condition is specified, DBMX performs
Cartesian product
• Natural join uses join condition to match only
rows with equal values in specified columns

55
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.