Control Theory I

Lec. 4
Mathematical Modeling of Electrical
& Electronic Systems & Mechanical
Systems

1
 Lecture Outline

•Part-I: Electrical System

•Basic Elements of Electrical Systems
•Equations for Basic Elements
•Examples

•Part-II: Electronic System

•Operational Amplifiers
•Inverting vs. Non-inverting
•Examples

2
 Lecture Outline

•Part-III: Mechanical Systems

•Linear Motion
•Rotational Motion
•Examples

3
 Introduction

• Why Laplace transforms are used in control systems?

• To convert the differential equation that represents the
dynamic system behaviour & process output into
algebraic equations.
• Are all differential equations of dynamic systems are
Linear?
• No, thus linearization is require to approximate non-
linear diff. equations. that can be treated by Laplace
transforms.

4
 Part-I: Electrical Systems
Basic Elements of Electrical Systems

1- Resistor:

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for

the resistor is given by Ohm’s law i-e

v R (t )  iR (t )R

• The Laplace transform of the above equation is

VR ( s )  I R ( s )R
5
 2- Capacitor:

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for

the Capacitor is given as:
1
vc (t )   ic (t )dt
C
• The Laplace transform of the above equation (assuming
there is no charge stored in the capacitor) is
1
Vc ( s )  Ic (s)
Cs 6
 3- Inductor:

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for

the inductor is given as:
diL (t )
v L (t )  L
dt

• The Laplace transform of the above equation (assuming

there is no energy stored in inductor) is

VL ( s )  LsI L ( s )
7
 Voltage, Current, Charge Relationship for
Capacitor, Resistor, and Inductor.

Component Symbol V-I Relation I-V Relation

Resistor v R (t )
v R (t )  iR (t )R iR (t ) 
R

Capacitor
1 dvc (t )
vc (t )   ic (t )dt ic ( t )  C
C dt
Inductor
diL (t ) 1
v L (t )  L i L (t )   v L (t )dt
dt L
8
Transform Impedance (Resistor)

iR(t) IR(S)
+ +

Transformation
vR(t) ZR = R VR(S)

- -

9
Transform Impedance (Capacitor)

ic(t) Ic(S)
+
+
Transformation

vc(t) ZC(S)=1/Cs Vc(S)

- -

10
Transform Impedance (Inductor)

IL(S)
iL(t)
+
+
Transformation
vL(t) ZL=LS VL(S)
LiL(0)
-
-

11
 Voltage, Current, Charge Relationship for
Capacitor, Resistor, and Inductor.

Assuming zero initial conditions.

12
 Equivalent Transform Impedance (Series)

• Consider following arrangement, find out equivalent transform

impedance.

ZT  Z R  Z L  Z C
C

1
Z T  R  Ls 
R

Cs

13
Equivalent Transform Impedance (Parallel)

L
1 1 1 1
  
ZT Z R Z L ZC C

1 1 1 1
  
ZT R Ls 1 R
Cs

14
 Kirchhoff’s Law
• Basic laws governing electrical circuits are Kirchhoff’s current law
and voltage law.
• Kirchhoff’s current law (node law) states that the algebraic sum of all
currents entering and leaving a node is zero.
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (loop or mesh law) states that at any given
instant the algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop in an
electrical circuit is zero.
• A mathematical model of an electrical circuit can be obtained by
applying one or both of Kirchhoff’s laws to it.

15
 Method-I (Kirchhoff's Law or Differential Equation
Approach):

Three Steps to get the Transfer Function of Electrical System:

1. Apply Kirchhoff’s law (Node or Loop Law) and write the

differential equations for the circuit.
2. Then take the Laplace transforms of the differential equations.
3. Finally solve the equations for the transfer function.

16
 Example-1: Obtain the transfer function of the given
RLC Circuit.

The two-port network shown in the following figure has vi(t) as

the input voltage, and vo(t) as the output voltage. Find the transfer
function Vo(s)/Vi(s) of the network.

vi( t) i(t) C vo(t)

1
vi (t )  i (t ) R 
C  i (t ) dt

1
v o (t ) 
C  i (t ) dt
17
 Example-1: (1)

1 1
vi ( t )  i ( t ) R   i(t )dt vo ( t )   i( t )dt
C C
• Taking Laplace transform of both equations, considering initial
conditions to zero.
1 1
Vi ( s )  I ( s ) R  I (s) Vo ( s )  I (s)
Cs Cs
• Re-arrange both equations as:

1
Vi ( s )  I ( s )( R  ) CsVo ( s )  I ( s )
Cs
18
 Example-1

1
Vi ( s )  I ( s )( R  ) CsVo ( s )  I ( s )
Cs
• Substitute I(s) in equation on left
1
Vi ( s )  CsVo ( s )( R  )
Cs
Vo ( s ) 1

Vi ( s ) 1
Cs( R  )
Cs
• The transfer function is:

Vo ( s ) 1

Vi ( s ) 1  RCs 19
 Example- Characteristic Equation:

Vo ( s ) 1

Vi ( s ) 1  RCs

• The system has one pole at

1
1  RCs  0 s
RC

20
 Example-2: Obtain the transfer function of the given RLC
Circuit.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to

the system, we obtain the following
equations:

(a)

(b)

A transfer-function model of the circuit can be obtained by taking the

Laplace transforms of Equations (a) and (b) with the assumption of
zero initial condition, we obtain
(c)

(d)
21
 Example-2.(cont.)

The transfer function, T.F = Eo(s)/Ei(s), of this RLC circuit can be

obtain as;
• Taking the I(s) common in equation (c), will get equation (e),
• Rearrange (d), get (f) and solve it in (e).
• Finally, obtain T.F from it.

1
( Ls  R  ) I ( s )  E i ( s )  ( e)
Cs
from ( d ) : I ( s )  CsE o ( s )  ( f )
solving ( f )in (e) :
( LCs 2  RCs  1) E o ( s )  E i ( s )
Hence, the transfer function, T.F = Eo(s)/Ei(s), of the RLC
circuit after simplification is
Eo ( s) 1
 T .F  
Ei ( s) LCs 2  RCs  1 22
Example 5: Find the transfer function G(S) of the
following two port network.

vi(t) i(t) C vo(t)

 solution:

• Simplify network by replacing multiple components with their

equivalent transform impedance.

Z
Vi(s) I(s) C Vo(s)
 solution :

L
Z

Vi(s) I(s) C Vo(s)

1 1 1
 
Z ZR ZL

1 1 1
 
Z R Ls

RLs
Z
R  Ls
solution

RLs
Z
R  Ls
L
Z

Vi(s) I(s) 1/Cs Vo(s)

1 1
Vi ( s )  I ( s )Z  I (s) Vo ( s )  I (s)
Cs Cs
Vo ( s ) 1

Vi ( s ) ZCs  1
 Part-II:
Electronic Systems

27
 Operational Amplifiers
Inverting Amplifier Non-Inverting Amplifier

Transfer Function of Inverting Amplifier

Transfer Function of Non-Inverting Amplifier
Vout Z2

Vin Z1 Vout Z2
 1
Vin Z1
28
 Example-6:

Obtain the Transfer Function Vo(s)/Vi(s) of the given inverting

amplifier.
 Example 6 : Solution:

By comparing with
equivalent
inverting
amplifier:-

 The complex impedances and

for this circuit are:
The transfer function Vo(s)/Vi(s) is,
Z 1 ( s )  R1  (1) therefore, obtained as
1 1 1 1  R2 Cs Vout ( s ) Z 2 (s) R2
    
Z 2 ( s) R2 1 R2
Cs Vin ( s ) Z1 ( s) R1 (1  R2 Cs)
R2
 Z 2 (s)   ( 2)
1  R2 Cs
 Example-7:

Obtain the Transfer Function Vo(s)/Vi(s) of the given non-

inverting amplifier.

31
 Example-7: Solution:

By comparing with
equivalent non-
inverting
amplifier:-

Z 1 ( s )  R1  (1)
 The complex impedances and 1 1 1 1  R2 Cs
  
for this circuit are: Z 2 ( s) R2 1 R2
Cs
R2
 Z 2 (s)   ( 2)
1  R2 Cs
32
Example-7: Solution (cont.):

• The transfer function Vo(s)/Vi(s) for non-inverting op-Amp,

obtained as:

Vout Z2
 1
Vin Z1

R2
Vout ( s ) 1  R2 Cs R2 R1 (1  R2 Cs)  R2
 1  1 
Vin ( s) R1 R1 (1  R2 Cs) R1 (1  R2 Cs)

33
HW : Find the transfer function Vo(s)/Vi(s) of the
following op-Amp.
Basic Types of Mechanical Systems
• Translational
- Linear Motion.

35
Basic Types of Mechanical Systems
• Rotational
- Rotational Motion

36
Basic Elements of Translational Mechanical Systems
I. Translational Spring.

II. Translational Mass.

III. Translational Damper.

37
Translational Spring.
• A translational spring is a mechanical element that can be
deformed by an external force such that the deformation is
directly proportional to the force applied to it.

Translational Spring Circuit Symbols

38
Translational Spring.

• If F is the applied force

• The equation of motion is given as

F  kx
• Where K: is stiffness of spring expressed in N/m.

39
 Translational Damper
• When the viscosity or drag is not negligible in a system, we often

model them with the damping force.

• All the materials exhibit the property of damping to some extent.

40
 Translational Damper
• If a force F is applied to a damper and it is displaced to x meters then
the relation b/w force and displacements is given by Newton’s law.

F  f v x
• Where f vis damping coefficient (N/ms-1).
41
Force-velocity, force-displacement, and impedance relationships for
springs, viscous dampers, and mass

Where, K, fv, and M are called spring constant, coefficient of viscous friction, and
mass, respectively. 42
 
Newton’s Second Law
• Newton's law of motion states that the algebraic sum of external
forces acting on a rigid body in a given direction is equal to the
product of the mass of the body and its acceleration in the same
direction. The law can be expressed as:

43
• Many mechanical systems are similar to multiple-loop and
multiple-node electrical networks, where more than one
simultaneous differential equation is required to describe the
system.
• In mechanical systems, the number of equations of motion required
is equal to the number of linearly independent motions.
• Linear independence implies that a point of motion in a system can
still move if all other points of motion are held still.

44
Steps to Obtain the Transfer Function of Translation
Mechanical System
• The mechanical system requires just one differential equation,
called the equation of motion, to describe it.
• Assume a positive direction of motion, for example, to the right.
• This assumed positive direction of motion is similar to assuming a
current direction in an electrical loop.
• First Step, draw a free-body diagram, placing on the body all forces
that act on the body either in the direction of motion or opposite to
it.

45
• Second Step, use Newton’s law to form a differential equation
of motion by summing the forces and setting the sum equal to
zero.
• Third Step, assuming zero initial conditions, we take the
Laplace transform of the differential equation, separate the
variables, and arrive at the transfer function.

46
Example-1:
Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s), of the system.

47
 Example-1 Solution:
• First step is to draw the free-body diagram.
• Place on the mass all forces felt by the mass.
• We assume the mass is traveling toward the right. Thus, only the
applied force points to the right; all other forces impede the
motion and act to oppose it. Hence, the spring, viscous damper,
and the force due to acceleration point to the left.

Free Body Diagram (FBD)

48
 Free Body Diagram (FBD)

• Second step is to write the differential equation of motion using

Newton’s law to sum to zero all of the forces shown on the
mass.

d 2 x (t )
M dt 2 f dx ( t )
v dt  kx(t )  f (t )

49
• Third step is to take the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial
conditions.

• Finally, solving for the transfer function yields

Block Diagram

50
Impedance Approach to Obtain the Transfer Function of
Translational Mechanical System
• Taking the Laplace transform of the force-displacement terms of
mechanical components , we get:
 
- For the spring:
F(s) = KX(s)
- For the viscous damper:
F(s) = SX(s)
- For the mass:
MX(s)
 • We can define impedance for mechanical components as:
Z(s) =
51
Example-2:
Solve example-1 using the Impedance Approach.

52
 Example-2 Solution:

Laplace Transformed FBD

• Summing the forces in the Laplace Transformed FBD, we get

• Which is in the form of:

[sum of impedances] X(s) = Sum of applied forces

53
Example-3:
 
Find the transfer function (s)/F(s) of the following system.

M1 M2

fv

54
 Example-4 Solution:
 
• There are two equation of motions because there are two linearly
independent motions((t) and (t)).
• The equations of motion can be written as following:

55
 k

M1 M2

fv

[ M 1s 2  f v s  k ] X 1 ( s )  [ f v s  k ] X 2 ( s )  F ( s )  (1)
 [ f v s  k ] X 1 ( s )  [ M 2 s 2  f v s  k ] X 2 ( s )  0  ( 2)
 
• From the figure given:
• = 1Kg, = 1Kg, K = 1N/M, = 1N-s/m

56
 • Thus, the equations (1) and (2) are written as:

[ s  s  1] X 1 ( s )  [ s  1] X 2 ( s )  F ( s )  (3)
2

 [ s  1] X 1 ( s )  [ s  s  1] X 2 ( s )  0
2
 ( 4)
 
• To find (s) and (s) we can use the Crammer rule
(s) = and (s) =
• We need just to find (s); because the transfer function in term of
(s)/F(s)
• = = +2+2

57
 
• = = (s+1)F(s)
• (s) = = , thus the TF /F(s):

• =

58
 Example-5:
Write, but do not solve, the equations of motion for the mechanical
network shown below.

59
 Example-5 Solution:
 
• The system has three degrees of freedom, since each of the three
masses can be moved independently while the others are held still.
• The form of the equations will be similar to electrical mesh
equations.
• For :

60
  
• has two springs(&), two viscous dampers(&), and mass()
associated with its motion.
• There is one spring between and () and one viscous damper
between and ().
• Thus the equation of motion for is:

M s 1
2

  f v1  f v 3  s   k1  k 2  X 1 ( s )  k 2 X 2 ( s)  f v 3 sX 3 ( s)  0

61
  
• For :

• has one spring(), two viscous dampers(&), and mass() associated

with its motion.
• There is one spring between and () and one viscous damper
between and ().
• Thus the equation of motion for is:
 
 k 2 X 1 ( s)  M 2 s   f v 2  f v 4  s  k 2 X 2 ( s)  f v 4 sX 3 ( s)  F ( s)
2
62
 
• For :

• two viscous dampers(&)and mass() associated with its motion.

• There is one viscous damper between and () and one viscous
damper between and ().
• Thus the equation of motion for is:

 
 f v 3 sX 1 ( s )  f v 4 sX 2 ( s)  M 3 s 2   f v 3  f v 4  s X 3 ( s)  0 63
 • Thus, the equations of motion are:

M s
1
2

  f v1  f v3  s   k1  k 2  X 1 ( s)  k 2 X 2 ( s)  f v 3 sX 3 ( s)  0
 
 k 2 X 1 ( s)  M 2 s   f v 2  f v 4  s  k 2 X 2 ( s)  f v 4 sX 3 ( s)  F ( s)
2

 
 f v 3 sX 1 ( s)  f v 4 sX 2 ( s)  M 3 s   f v 3  f v 4  s X 3 ( s)  0
2

64
hw

•Find
  the transfer function,, for the translational mechanical system
shown in Figure

65
hw

•Find
  the transfer function,, for the translational mechanical system
shown in Figure

66
hw

•Find
  the transfer function,, for the translational mechanical system
shown in Figure

67