ORTHOGRAPHIC

PROJECTIONS
CHAPTER 4
 Projections

• As per the optical physics, an object is seen when the light

rays called visual rays coming from the object strike the
observer's eye.
• If an imaginary transparent plane is introduced such that
the object is in between the observer and the plane, the
image obtained on the screen. This is called perspective
view of the object.
• Here, straight lines (rays) are drawn from various points on
the contour of the object to meet the transparent plane,
thus the object is said to be projected on that plane.
Perspective Projection Parallel projection
• The goal in engineering graphics, whether it is freehand sketching or
CAD, is to represent a physical object Objects can be shown as 3-D
projections or Multi-view projections.
• 3-D projections are useful in that they provide an image that is
similar to the image in the designer’s mind’s eye.
• But 3-D projections are often weak in providing adequate details of
the object, and there is often some distortion of the object. For
instance, a circular hole becomes an ellipse in an isometric 3-D
projection.
• Multiview projections are used to overcome the weaknesses of 3-D
projections. Multiview projections are a collection of flat 2-D
drawings of the different sides of an object.
• Only two forms of orthographic projections are used: first-angle
(‘European ISO-E’) and third-angle (‘American ISO-A’).
 Types of Projections
1. Pictorial projections
The Projections in which the description of the object is
completely understood in one view is known as pictorial
projection. They have the advantage of conveying an
immediate impression of the general shape and details
of the object, but not its true dimensions or sizes
(i) Perspective projection
(ii) Isometric projection
(iii) Oblique projection
2. Orthographic Projections
'ORTHO' means right angle and orthographic means
right angled drawing. When the projectors are
perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is
obtained, it is known as orthographic projection
• Method of Obtaining Front View: When the
observer looks from the front surface F or the block,
its true shape and size is seen. When the rays or
projectors are extended further they meet the vertical
plane(V.P) located behind the object. By joining the
projectors meeting the plane in correct sequence the
Front view is obtained.
PROJECTIONS
What is Orthographic Projection?
• Orthographic Projection is a method of
representing a three dimensional object on
paper using several two dimensional views.
• It is the international language of Engineers
and Designers
• A system of drawing views of an object using
perpendicular projectors from the object to a
plane of projection
 How does it work?
• We look directly at the different faces of the
object (90˚ to the face) and draw the lines that
we see.
 How many views?
• One view is never enough to describe an
object.
• We need at least two views to accurately
describe even the most simple of objects.
• Generally we se three views and arrange them
as shown in the movie
• You can use as many views as the object
requires.
Perspective Projection Parallel projection
• Perspective
projection is
rarely used in
manual drawing
• Rather, we us a
variety of
orthographic
projections, for
which the
projection rays
are parallel
• In orthographic projection, the projection
rays are parallel (view point at infinity)
Parallel Projections
Oblique Projections
• Projectors are parallel to each
other but not perpendicular to
projection plane
•  An oblique projection shows front
and top surfaces that include the
three dimensions of height,
 width,  and  depth.  
• The  front  or  principal  surface  of
an  object  (the surface toward the
plane of projection) is parallel to
the plane of projection.
• Effective in pictorially representing
objects
Orthographic Projections
• Orthographic  projections  are
  drawings  where  the
 projectors, the observer or
station point remain parallel
to each other and
perpendicular to the plane of
projection.
• Orthographic  projections  are
  further  subdivided  into
 axonometric projections and
multi-view projections.
• Effective in technical
representation of objects
 Axonometric
• The observer is at infinity & the
projectors are parallel to each other
and perpendicular to the plane of
projection.
• A key feature of axonometric
projections is that the object is inclined
toward the plane of projection showing
all three surfaces in one view.   
• The length of the lines, sizes of the
angles, and proportions of the object
varies according to the amount of angle
between the object and the plane of
projection. 
• The object is tilted with all three
coordinate axes are visible in any one
view
 Orthographic (Orthogonal)

• The object is at
rest and two
coordinate axes
are visible in any
one view
 Multi-view Projections
• Front surfaces of object is parallel to plane of projection
• Projectors or line of sights are perpendicular to projection plane
• Projectors are parallel to each other and originate from any
point on object
• Perspective projection is useful for ‘non
technical’ communications
Projection techniques
 Categories of orthographic projection

Projectors

Principal
plane of
object
Projection of an Object
 The Glass Box
• Imagine that the object you
are going to draw is
positioned inside a glass
box, so that the large flat
surfaces of the object are
parallel to the walls of the
box.
• From each point on the
object, imagine a ray, or
projector perpendicular to
the wall of the box forming
the view of the object on
that wall or projection plane
• Unfolding the Glass Box

• The Six Basic Views

The Standard Arrangement of Views
• Why must views be arranged so that they align?
• To make it possible for someone to interpret the drawing
TOP
LEFT FRONT RIGHT
BOTTOM
REAR
 Using a Miter Line to Transfer Depth

1. Draw miter line at

45 degrees at a
convenient distance
to produce the
desired view
2. Sketch light lines
projecting depth
locations for points
to miter line and
then down into side
view as shown
3. Project additional points,
surface by surface.

4. Draw the view locating

each vertex of the surface
on the projection and miter
line.
 Other Visualization Tools
• Number vertices in different views of multi-
view and isometric drawing
How do I know which method is being used?

• Each method has its own symbol and they are

as follows
• First angle projection

• Third angle projection

 Four Quadrants
• When the planes of projections are extended beyond their
line of intersection, they form Four Quadrants. These
quadrants are numbered as I, II, ill and IV in clockwise
direction when rotated about reference line xy
• The object is in the first quadrant and the projections
obtained are "First angle projections" i.e., the object lies in
between the observer and the planes of projection. Front
view shows the length(L) and height(H) of the object, and Top
view shows the length(L) and the breadth(B) of it.
• First Angle Projection:
When the object is situated in First Quadrant,
that is, in front of V.P and above H.P, the
projections obtained on these planes is called
First angle projection.
• A view of the object is projected by drawing
parallel projecting lines, or projectors, from
the object to the vertical principal plane (VP).
This view on VP is called a front view. A view
similarly projected on to the horizontal
principal plane (HP) is called a plan view.
• View in the direction a = front view
• View in the direction b = top view
• View in the direction c = left side view
• View in the direction d = right side view
• View in the direction e = bottom view
• View in the direction f = rear view
• Third Angle Projection:
The object is situated in Third Quadrant. The
Planes of projection lie between the object and
the observer. The front view comes below the xy
line and the top view about it.
• The planes are imagined to be transparent,
and the projected views of the object are
viewed through the planes.
• In common practice, only three of the six possible
views as shown in Figure are used for complete
description of an object
Third-angle orthogonal projection
 Axonometric projection

• Lines of sight perpendicular to projection plane

• Principal axes all inclined to projection plane
 Isometric projection

• For an isometric drawing, scale = FS on each axis

 Oblique projection

• Principal object face parallel to projection plane

Varieties of oblique projection
Projections of a cube compared
Standard 2D views
 Symbols for 1st & 3rd Angle Projection

• Third angle projection is used in the U.S., and

Canada
EXAMPLES
 Views of Surfaces
1. SURFACES bounded by straight lines, or
curves
Edge View
True View Foreshortened View
Normal Surface Inclined Surface
Perpendicular to
a plane, but
inclined or
tipped to
Parallel to the adjacent planes.
plane of projection Edge vien on
(true shape&size) perp. Plane, fs
view on inclined
planes
Oblique Surface Normal Edge

True length in adjacent

planes
Tipped to all
planes.
FS on all planes.

Point on
perpendicular
Plane
Inclined Edge Oblique Edge

True length in parallel

plane Shortened &
(angled) Angled

Shortened &
Shortened on Angled
adjacent planes
(vertical /
horizontal)