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Introduction To Relational Model

The document introduces some key concepts of the relational model: 1) A relation consists of a set of tuples with attributes, and relations can be joined or queried using operations like selection, projection, union and difference. 2) Databases contain multiple relations that are designed for normalization to avoid data redundancy and null values. 3) Keys like primary keys and foreign keys are used to uniquely identify tuples and define relationships between relations.

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Umma Habiba
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
53 views

Introduction To Relational Model

The document introduces some key concepts of the relational model: 1) A relation consists of a set of tuples with attributes, and relations can be joined or queried using operations like selection, projection, union and difference. 2) Databases contain multiple relations that are designed for normalization to avoid data redundancy and null values. 3) Keys like primary keys and foreign keys are used to uniquely identify tuples and define relationships between relations.

Uploaded by

Umma Habiba
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 2

Introduction to Relational Model


Example of a Relation
2
attributes
(or columns)

tuples
(or rows)

Introduction to Relational Model


Attribute Types
3

The set of allowed values for each attribute


is called the domain of the attribute
Attribute values are (normally) required to
be atomic; that is, indivisible
The special value null is a member of
every domain
The null value causes complications in the
definition of many operations

Introduction to Relational Model


Relation Schema and Instance
4

A1, A2, …, An are attributes

R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is a relation schema

Example:
instructor = (ID, name, dept_name, salary)
Formally, given sets D1, D2, …. Dn a relation r is
a subset of
D1 x D2 x … x Dn
Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a1, a2, …, an)
where each ai  Di
Introduction to Relational Model
Relations are Unordered
5

 Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order)


 Example: instructor relation with unordered tuples

Introduction to Relational Model


Database
6
 A database consists of multiple relations

 Information about an enterprise is broken up into parts

instructor
student
advisor
 Bad design:
univ (instructor -ID, name, dept_name, salary, student_Id, ..)
results in
 repetition of information (e.g., two students have the same instructor)
 the need for null values (e.g., represent an student with no advisor)
 Normalization theory (Chapter 7) deals with how to design “good”
relational schemas

Introduction to Relational Model


Keys
7
 Let K  R
 K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify
a unique tuple of each possible relation r(R)
 Example: {ID} and {ID,name} are both superkeys of instructor.
 Superkey K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Example: {ID} is a candidate key for Instructor
 One of the candidate keys is selected to be the primary
key.
 Foreign key constraint: Value in one relation must appear
in another
 Referencing relation
 Referenced relation
Introduction to Relational Model
Schema Diagram for University Database
8

Introduction to Relational Model


Relational Query Languages
9

Procedural vs.non-procedural, or declarative


“Pure” languages:
 Relational algebra
 Tuple relational calculus
 Domain relational calculus
Relational operators

Introduction to Relational Model


Selection of tuples
10

 Relation r

 Select tuples with A=B


and D > 5
 σ A=B and D > 5 (r)

Introduction to Relational Model


Selection of Columns (Attributes)
11

Relation r:

 Select A and C
Projection
Π A, C (r)

Introduction to Relational Model


Joining two relations – Cartesian Product
12

 Relations r, s:

 r x s:

Introduction to Relational Model


Union of two relations
13

Relations r, s:

r  s:

Introduction to Relational Model


Set difference of two relations
14

Relations r, s:

r – s:

Introduction to Relational Model


Set Intersection of two relations
15

Relation r, s:

rs

Introduction to Relational Model


Joining two relations – Natural Join
16

Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S


respectively.
Then, the “natural join” of relations R and S is a
relation on schema R  S obtained as follows:
 Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.
 If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in
R  S, add a tuple t to the result, where
 t has the same value as tr on r
 t has the same value as ts on s

Introduction to Relational Model


Natural Join Example
17

Relations r, s:

Natural Join
r s

Introduction to Relational Model


Introduction to Relational Model

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