To guide their questions, research, and interpretations of

data, developmental scholars construct ‘theories’.

A theory is an organized system of principles and
explanations for a particular phenomena.

There are 7 categories of theoretical approaches to

child development:
1. Biological Theories
2. Behaviorism and Social Learning Theories
3. Psychodynamic Theories
4. Cognitive-Developmental Theories
5. Cognitive Process Theories
6. Sociocultural Theories
7. Developmental Systems Theories
 These theories focus on
genetic factors,
physiological structures
and functions of the body,
and the psychological
processes that help the
child adapt and survive in
their environment.

Emphasis on NATURE.

Theorists include Charles Darwin, Arnold Gesell, Maria

Montessori, Konrad Lorenz, John Bowlby, Henry
Wellman, Susan Gelman, David Bjorklund, Robert
Plomin, Sandra Scarr, and Mary Ainsworth.
 John Bowlby 1907-1990 Born in England
Physician and Psychoanalyst at the University of
Cambridge
Developed attachment theory.
Classic works: The Nature of the Child’s Tie to His Mother
(1958), Separation Anxiety (1960), Grief and Mourning in
Infancy and Early Childlhood (1960)

Mary D. Ainsworth1913 - 1999 Born in Glendale, Ohio. Ph.D.

in Developmental Psychology from the University of Toronto in
1939.Known for work on early emotional attachments. Studied
cultural differences in attachment formation in infants in
Uganda. Co-author with John Bowlby.

Konrad Lorenz 1903-1989 Born in Altenberg, Austria. Established

the science of ethology. Awarded the Nobel Laureate in
Physiology and Medicine in 1973 for his studies concerning the
organization of individual and group behavior patterns. Laid the
foundation of an evolutionary approach to mind and cognition.
Charles Robert Darwin, 1809-1882 is best known for devising
the theory of evolution to explain to diversity of species, but
also wrote widely about the emotional bonds between humans,
and similarities between the emotions of humans and animals.
Arnold Lucius Gesell 1880-1961, was a psychologist and pediatrician
who was a pioneer in the field of child development. Gesell made use of
the latest technology in his research: video and photography and one-
way mirrors He realized the vast importance of both nature and nurture.
He cautioned others not to be quick to attribute mental disabilities to
specific causes. He believed that many aspects of human behavior,
such as handedness and temperament are inheritable. He understood
that children adapted to their parents as well as to one another. He
thought that a nationwide nursery school system would benefit America.
Maria Montessori (1870 – 1952) was an Italian physician, educator,
philosopher, humanitarian and devout Catholic; best known for her
philosophy and the Montessori method of education of children. Her
educational method is in use today in a number of public and private
schools throughout the world. Education is not what the teacher gives;
education is a natural process spontaneously carried out by the human
individual, and is acquired not by listening to words but by experiences
upon the environment. The teacher prepares a series of motives of
cultural activity, spread over a specially prepared environment, and
then refrains from obtrusive interference.
 Henry Wellman is a developmental psychologist specializing in
cognitive domains. Such domains, like the child's understanding of
language or space, are rapidly acquired cognitive structures that frame
and encourage further developments. Wellman's research focuses on
this question in children from infancy to adulthood, growing up in this
and other cultures, as well as impaired children (autism) that seem to
fail to develop a normal understanding of people's mental lives.
Susan Gelman is a Professor of Psychology at the University of
Michigan. Her research focuses on the topics of cognitive
development, language acquisition, categorization, inductive reasoning,
causal reasoning, and relationships between language and thought.
Gelman subscribes to the domain specificity view of cognition,
asserting that the mind is comprised of specialized modules sub-
serving specific cognitive functions.
David Bjorklund's research interests are in the areas of cognitive
development and evolutionary developmental psychology. Research
projects conducted in his lab include the use of simple arithmetic
strategies while playing a board game ("Chutes and Ladders"), as well
as how parents interact with children during such games to facilitate
children's mathematical performance, etc. Related scholarly interests
include issues of the possible role of development in human cognitive
evolution and the establishment of evolutionary developmental
psychology as a subdiscipline within psychology.
Robert Plomin (1948- ); is an American psychologist best known
for his work in twin studies and behavior genetics. Plomin has made
two of the most important discoveries in that field. First, he has
shown the importance of non-shared environment, a term that he
coined to refer to the environmental reasons why children growing
up in the same family are so different. Second, he has shown that
many environmental measures in psychology show genetic
influence and that genetic factors can mediate associations between
environmental measures and developmental outcomes.

Sandra Wood Scarr (born August 1936) is an American

psychology professor. In the 1960's, Scarr studied identical
and fraternal twins' aptitude and school achievement scores.
The study revealed that intellectual development was heavily
influenced by genetic ability, especially among more
advantaged children. It also showed that on average, black
children demonstrated less genetic and more environmental
influence on their intelligence than white children. Scarr also
collaborated with Margaret Williams on a clinical study which
demonstrated that premature birth infants who receive
stimulation gain weight faster and recover faster than babies
left in isolation (the practice at that time).
 Theorists focus on
environmental stimuli and
learning processes that
lead to behavioral change.
When children act, the
environment responds
with rewards or
punishment.
Emphasis on NURTURE.

Theorists include B.F. Skinner, John B. Watson, Ivan

Pavlov, Sidney Bijou, Donald Baer, and Albert Bandura.
B.F. Skinner 1904-1990 Ph.D. in Psychology from
Harvard University in 1931
Taught at Harvard University
Started the science of operant behavior, a branch of behaviorism
He originated programmed instruction.

Albert Bandura 1925-present Perhaps Albert Bandura is most

noted for his Social Learning Theory, which resulted from his
famous Bobo doll experiment. Albert Bandura believed that
aggression must explain three aspects: First, how aggressive
patterns of behavior are developed; second, what provokes
people to behave aggressively, and third, what determines
whether they are going to continue to resort to an aggressive
behavior pattern on future occasions.

John B. Watson 1878-1958 Founder of behaviorist school of

psychology. Concluded that heredity is a minor factor in human being’s
actions.
 Ivan P. Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian physiologist, three major emphases
of research: function of the nerves of the heart, primary digestive glands,
conditioned reflexes Most significant figure in the history of Russian
psychology and pioneer in research in classical conditioning. His
‘Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes’ is a classic work setting forth a
psychology and psychiatry based on the principles of conditioning,
serendipitously discovered the paradigm of classical conditioning while
doing research on the digestive system.
Sidney W. Bijou Dr. Bijou introduced the operant method for the
systematic study of children in laboratory settings. He and his
colleagues at the University of Washington introduced field
operant methods for children and published a methodology for
such studies. Dr. Bijou has an impressive publication record,
including 16 books and over 150 articles. Dr. Bijou and Dr. Donald
Baer published a highly regarded series of books on the behavior
analysis of child development.

Donald Baer, 1931-2002, was a world-renowned psychologist who

significantly contributed to his field of research. Baer was at the
forefront of the applied behavior movement and pioneered the
development of behavior analysis at two separate institutions, incl.
the University of Kansas. Some of his most noteworthy contributions
include literature on behavior-analytic theory, experimental design,
and early childhood interventions.
 Theorists focus on
how family and
society affect how
children control and
express instinctual
urges such as
sexuality and
aggressiveness.
Social relationships
affect children’s
basic trust in others
Theorists include Sigmund
and
Freud, Anna Freud, and Erik
perception/identity of
Erikson.
themselves as
individuals.
 Sigmund Freud, 1856-1939, is often referred to as the Father of
psychoanalysis. He studied under Charcot in Paris, developing
techniques such as hypnosis. After using hypnosis, Freud developed
the technique of free association. Freud's theory focused on the
unconscious, drives and defenses. He developed the 3-part theory of
human behavior (id, ego, and superego) and the
Oedipal Complex (child’s attachment to opposite-sex
parent.
Anna Freud, 1895 - 1982 Continuing the work of her father,
Sigmund Freud, she was a pioneer in the psychoanalysis of
children. She received her training in Vienna and then emigrated to
England, where she founded and directed a clinic for child therapy.

Erik H. Erikson 1902-1994

Erikson is a Freudian ego-psychologist. This means that he
accepts Freud's ideas as basically correct, including the more
debatable ideas such as the Oedipal complex, and accepts as
well the ideas about the ego that were added by other Freudian
loyalists such as Heinz Hartmann and Anna Freud. Erikson,
however, believed in the influence of the environment. Erikson is
most widely noted for his 8-stage model of psychosocial
development.
 Theorists believe that children’s
thinking undergoes
transformations toward
increasingly abstract and
systematic patterns. It may
depend on early experiences.
Children can eventually see a
single event from several valid
points of view.

Theorists include Jean Piaget, Bärbel

Inhelder, Lawrence Kohlberg, David
Elkind, Robbie Case, and John Flavell.
 Jean Piaget 1896-1980 Swiss psychologist pioneering work on the
development of intelligence in children. His studies have had a
major impact on the fields of psychology and education. In his work
Piaget identified the child's four stages of cognitive development: In
the sensorimotor stage, birth to age 2, the child is concerned with
gaining motor control and learning about physical objects. In the
preoperational stage, ages 2 to 7, the child is preoccupied with
verbal skills, naming objects and reasoning intuitively. In the
concrete operational stage, ages 7 to 12, the child begins to deal
with abstract concepts such as numbers and relationships. Finally,
in the formal operational stage, ages 12 to 15, the child begins to
reason logically and systematically.
Lawrence Kohlberg 1927-1987 Kohlberg, an American
psychologist, is best known for his work in the development of
moral reasoning in children and adolescents. Kohlberg concluded
that children and adults progress through six stages in the
development of moral reasoning.
John Flavell (1928- )Flavell's research focused on children's
understanding of the roles of others and on children's communication
skills and developing memory skills. Flavell found that children need to
understand the concept of memory before they can develop skills for
utilizing and improving memory. He called this knowledge
"metamemory.”
 Bärbel Inhelder (1913-1997) was a Swiss developmental psychologist,
the most famous co-worker of Jean Piaget. Inhelder's work was
particularly significant in the discovery of the stage of "formal
operations" occurring in the transition between childhood and
adolescence. This type of thinking involves deductive reasoning and the
ability to reason hypothetically.

David Elkind (1931- ) Dr. Elkind is a renowned author and

clinical psychologist. His research has focused on cognitive and
social development of children and adolescents and has included
studies of stress, its causes, and its effects on children, youth, and
families. He has served as a consultant to schools, mental health
associations, and private foundations.
Robbie Case 1945-2000 Case’s research includes important papers
on social, emotional, and linguistic development and on the
development of creative intelligence. His main research focus
centered on theories of intellectual development in relation to
education…specifically math. He was the author of a stage theory of
cognitive development, integrating important aspects of
the Piagetian stage theory and cognitive information-processing
theory to capitalize on the strengths and overcome limitations of
each, and particularly to draw out from this integration implications
for the design of instruction.
 Theorists focus on both
nature and nurture.
Children are born with the
basic capacity to perceive,
interpret, and remember
information. Those
capacities change with
brain maturation,
experience, and reflection.

Theorists include David Klahr, Deanna Kuhn, Robert

Siegler, Ann L. Brown, Henry Wellman, Susan
Gelman, John Flavell, and Robbie Case.
David Klahr His current research focuses on cognitive development,
scientific reasoning, and cognitively-based instructional interventions in
early science education. His earlier work addressed cognitive processes
in such diverse areas as voting behavior, college admissions, consumer
choice, peer review and problem solving.
Deanna Kuhn Deanna Kuhn argues that schools should teach
students to use their minds well, in school and beyond. Bringing
insights from research in developmental psychology to pedagogy,
Kuhn maintains that inquiry and argument should be at the center of a
"thinking curriculum"—a curriculum that makes sense to students as
well as to teachers and develops the skills and values needed for
lifelong learning.
Robert S. Siegler Bob Siegler specializes in the cognitive
development of problem-solving and reasoning in children,
especially in math and science. Three areas of particular interest to
his research are strategy choices, long-term learning, and
educational applications of cognitive-developmental theory.
Ann Leslie Brown (1943-1999) was an educational psychologist who
developed methods for teaching children to be better learners. Her
realization that children's learning difficulties often stem from an inability
to use metacognitive strategies such as summarizing led to profound
advances in educational psychology theory and teaching practices.
 With an emphasis
on nurture,
theorists believe all
children will
naturally learn to
use
communication,
intellectual abilities,
and social-
emotional skills…
but families and Theorists include Lev Vygotsky,
community/culture A.R. Luria, James Wertsch,
influence how they Barbara Rogoff, Patricia
carry out these Greenfield, Mary Gauvain,
tasks. Jerome Bruner, and Michael Cole.
Lev Vygotsky 1896 –1934 This Russian psychologist believed that
through social interactions with parents, teachers, etc. a child comes to
learn the habits of her/his culture, including speech patterns, written
language, and other symbolic knowledge through which the child
derives meaning and allows them to construct her/his knowledge.
Vygotsky also researched the importance of play on developing
abstract thinking skills and in learning social rules of society. He
believed in using less abstract presentations of material in the
classroom, and letting students experience more real-world settings.
A.R. Luria (1902-1977) Alexander Luria developed the "combined
motor method," which helped diagnose individuals' thought
processes, creating the first ever lie-detector device. His overall
psychology approach fused "cultural," "historical," and "instrumental"
psychology and is most commonly referred to presently as cultural-
historical psychology. He also developed the Luria-Nebraska, a
neuropsychological battery of tests that differs from standardized
tests because the administrator has some flexibility.
James V. Wertsch Wertsch's research is concerned with language,
thought and culture. He has focused on collective memory and
identity in countries such as Russia and Ukraine, and he is now
examining these topics in the Republic of Georgia…a natural
laboratory for the emergence of democracy and civil society,
 Barbara Rogoff is an educator whose interests lie in
understanding and communicating the different learning thrusts
between cultures. She discusses Constructivist theorists Piaget
and Vygotsky in relation to collaboration, the role of adult experts
in the process of learning, peer interaction and community
collaborative sociocultural activities.

Patricia M. Greenfield believes that a single test may measure

different abilities in different cultures. Her findings emphasized the
importance of taking issues of cultural generality into account. She
focuses on the role of the environment in the development of
abilities, cultural beliefs, and values.

Mary Gauvain studies how social and cultural processes contribute to

children's acquisition, organization, and use of cognitive skills. A
fundamental question about human cognition underlies her research.
She describes theory and research on social contributions to cognitive
development in four areas - attention, memory, problem solving, and
planning. She also discusses family, peer, and community factors
influence not only what a child learns, but also how learning occurs.
Jerome Seymour Bruner (1915- )Bruner's ideas are based on
categorization. "To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is
to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is
to categorize." Bruner maintains people interpret the world in
terms of its similarities and differences. Like Bloom’s Taxonomy,
Bruner suggests a system of coding in which people form a
hierarchical arrangement of related categories. Bruner's work
also suggests that a learner (even of a very young age) is
capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is
organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget
and other stage theorists.

Michael E. Cole and other psychologists have argued that

cognitive processing does not accommodate the possibility that
descriptions of intelligence may differ from one culture to
another and across cultural subgroups. He has studied the role
of micro-cultures in the cognitive and social development of
children. He has been studying interactive video conferencing
as a medium for teaching and inter-institutional collaboration,
as well as after-school educational activities that make use of
computer-based communication technologies.
 Factors inside the
child (nature) and
outside the child
(nurture) combine to
influence
developmental
patterns. Their own
activities, from
sleeping and eating
patterns to watching
TV and playing sports,
Theorists include Urie
also influence
Bronfenbrenner, Arnold
development
Sameroff, Richard Lerner, Kurt
throughout the life
Fischer, Esther Thelen, Gilbert
cycle.
Gottlieb, and Paul Baltes.
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005), was the co-founder of the
national Head Start program. As a result of Bronfenbrenner's
groundbreaking work in "human ecology", environments from
the family to economic and political structures, have come to
be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through
adulthood. He spent many of his later years warning "The
hectic pace of modern life poses a threat to our children
second only to poverty and unemployment," he said. "We are
depriving millions of children -- and thereby our country -- of
their birthright … virtues, such as honesty, responsibility,
integrity and compassion."
Arnold Sameroff is examining infants with physiologic
regulatory problems, children with depressed parents, and
adolescents living in neighborhoods with few resources to
support development. He is exploring the relation of risk and
protective factors to issues of vulnerability and resilience. A
major question is whether single individual or environmental
factors have major consequences for developmental
outcomes or whether it is the accumulation of a variety of
risks, independent of their specific qualities, that is the
determining influence.
 Richard Lerner is known for his application of developmental
science across the life span; developmental systems theory;
personality and social development in adolescence; developmental
methodology; programs and policies for children, youth, and
families; university-community collaboration and outreach
scholarship.

Kurt Fischer His work focuses on the dynamic organization of

behavior and the way it changes, especially cognitive development,
social behavior, emotions, and brain bases. In his approach, called
dynamic skill theory, he aims to integrate organismic and
environmental factors. His research analyzes change and variation
in a range of domains, including early reading skills; problem solving
and co-construction; concepts of self in relationships; emotions;
child abuse; and brain development.

Esther Thelen (1942-2005) She and colleagues studied infant

movement, perception and cognition and how perceptual motor
skills in infancy can say much about how people will adapt later in
life.
 Gilbert Gottlieb (1929-2006) played the role as an
intermediator between psychology and evolutionary
biology. He proposed that altered developmental
conditions gave rise to new behavioral phenotypes.

Paul B. Baltes (1939-2006) His substantive work on

wisdom, adaptation to age—related change, the
elaboration of old age, the permanent incompleteness
of human architecture, and biocultural co-
constructivism of the human brain all reflect his
visionary quest to understand human development. He
recognized the interdependence of theory and method
and promoted their joint improvement in such
conceptions as the multidimensionality and multi-
directionality of change and the simultaneous regard
for gains and losses.
 No single theory can explain all aspects of child
development. An eclectic approach, one that includes
many perspectives including some nature and some
nurture… is probably the most useful.
A ‘learning style’ refers to Herman A. Witkin 1916-1979
the individual differences He was a pioneer in learning
in how we perceive, think, styles.
solve problems, learn,
and relate to others.
Witkin authored the
concept of field-
dependence and field
independence.

He believed, figuratively
speaking, that when
some people look at the When others look at the
forest… they see the forest… they see a
whole forest. single tree.
What do you see? If
you see the WHOLE
picture, the forest,
then you are ‘field
dependent’.
If you can easily The ‘Embedded Figures Test’ was
separate a single developed to measure ‘field dependence’
and ‘field independence’. A test for
tree from the
preschoolers is called the Preschool
forest, and see Embedded Figures Test or PEFT. The
just that tree, Children’s Embedded Figures Test is the
then you are CEFT, and an adult version that can be
‘field administered to a group is called the
independent’. Group Embedded Figures Test, or GEFT.
Here is a sample of the PEFT test:
The picture at the lower right is ‘the field’. Look at the
field.

Within the ‘field’ is

this triangle. Can
you see the
triangle?

If you can find a simple figure

within a complex ‘field’, then
you may be field independent.
 The Children’s Embedded
Figures Test or CEFT, is
similar to the PEFT but is
colored… to add more
distraction. The adult test, or
GEFT, asks the subject to
find a simple geometric
figure within a more complex
one.

The Embedded Figures test

measures intellectual
development… HOW you Individuals who are ‘field
think. It does NOT measure dependent’ have different
intelligence. characteristics than those
who are ‘field independent’.
 Field Independent people take an
analytical approach; as a child they
tend to prefer less social play
options such as block building,
puzzles, painting, etc.; they may be
described by others as
inconsiderate and manipulative, but
would describe themselves as
independent. They prefer solitary
sports, such as golf, wrestling,
chess, swimming. They do well in
careers that do not involve
interpersonal relationships. They
are very effective at analysis and
restructuring of elements. They
make judgements based on fact.
 Field dependent people take a
global approach; they deal with
‘the whole’. Children usually prefer
social play options such as playing
house, playing school, and group
activities. They may be described
as warm and liking to be with
others. They prefer team sports
such as basketball and volleyball.
They are ‘people persons’, and
favor interpersonal work
relationships. They are very
effective in conflict resolution and
working out disagreements. They
use intuition and gut-feelings in
making judgments.
 Remember the
hidden picture
activities you did
as a child?
Were you good
at finding the
hidden pictures?
How about
finding ‘Waldo’
in the ‘Where’s
Waldo’ pictures?
Those activities
appealed to
Do you see THE HIDDEN TIGER in the ‘field
picture above? independent’
Read the words THE HIDDEN TIGER in the tiger’s stripes. children.
 To score the Embedded Figures Test, you need to
understand several psychological testing terms:
Suppose you tested 11 children. Line up their scores from
lowest to highest, like this…
Field
Field
dependent
4 4 6( 8 12 13 ) 16 18 18 19 20 independence
Qualities of BOTH
What is the mean/average score? (add all together and
divide by the total number of scores) 138 ÷ 11= 12.54
What is the median score? ( in the middle of the range)13
If 3 year old girls have a mean score of 10.73 with a
standard deviation of 3.74… what does that mean?
Standard deviation means ‘plus or minus’ possible error.
10.73 – 3.74 = 6.99; 10.73 + 3.74=14.47 Children who score lower
than 6.99 on the test are field dependent; higher than 14.47 are field
independent. Children who score somewhere IN the range… have
equal qualities of both field dependence/independence.
 Jerome Kagan was born in Newark, New
Jersey in 1929, the son of Joseph and Myrtle
(Liebermann) Kagan.  Kagan graduated from
Rutgers University in New Jersey in 1950
with a B.S. degree and in 1951 he married
Cele Katzman; the couple have one
daughter. Kagan earned his PhD from Yale
University in 1954 and received an honorary
master's degree from Harvard University in
1964.  He also spent one year as an
instructor in psychology at Ohio State
University. Following two years as a
psychologist at the U.S. Army Hospital at
West Point, Kagan joined the Fels Research
Institute in Yellow Springs, Ohio, as a
research associate. In 1959, he became
chairman of the Department of Psychology
there.
As part of his focus on
‘temperament’, Kagan
studied individuals
and how each
approached a
problem-solving task.

Those children who

are relatively slow and
highly accurate in
their work are called To measure whether a child is
‘reflective’. Those that ‘reflective’ or ‘impulsive’…
work quickly and Kagan developed the
make more errors are MATCHING BEARS TASK.
‘impulsive’.
 When administering the
Matching Bears Task,
the child is shown a
picture of a bear.
6 more bear pictures
are then revealed, and
the child is asked to
circle the one bear that
matches the top bear.
Curved chair back Square feet
The child who circles
the right bear AND
gives good reasons
why the other bears
don’t match… is
Tall chair back Bow on other side Looking up ‘reflective’.
 The child who circles the wrong
bear OR who cannot give good
reasons why the other bears do not
match… is ‘impulsive’.

I don’t know
why this bear
is different.

One of the most valuable applications of the

Impulsive/Reflective Reasoning Task is to a child’s ability
to learn to read. A reflective child is more likely to take their
time and sound out words. They learn to read more easily.
 MEASURES COGNITIVE ‘TEMPO’ OR PACE

IMPULSIVE REFLECTIVE

THROUGH OBSERVATION AND TESTING, KAGAN MADE

SEVERAL CONCLUSIONS:
a. Reflection increases with age
b. Impulsiveness or reflectiveness is fairly stable for the
first 20 years, regardless of attempts to change it
c. Impulsiveness or reflectiveness shows up in the
performance of many tasks
d. Impulsiveness or reflectiveness appears to be linked
to personality.
 Schools tend to reward the reflective individuals. In
the workplace, these individuals tend to be leaders.

They fall back

on reflective
skills,
mastering
detail,
analyzing,
discussing,
weighing
alternatives,
and thinking
critically.
 Jean Piaget 1896-1980
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist,
best known for his pioneering work on the
development of intelligence in children.
His studies have had a major impact on
the fields of psychology and education.
Piaget was born August 9, 1896.
He received his doctorate in
biology at age 22. Piaget became
interested in psychology; he
studied and carried out research
first in Zurich, Switzerland, and
then at the Sorbonne in Paris,
where he began his studies on
the development of cognitive
abilities.
Jean Piaget
Jean wrote
Piaget
the Theory of
DrawGraphic
a picture of
• Jean Piaget developed the House-
Tree Task.

Representation:
a house with a
tree behind it.
 The house-tree task measures
intellectual or cognitive
development, but NOT intelligence.
It is an appropriate test for children
in the pre-operational stage of
development… usually between
the ages of 2 and 7 years. It The child must be given
measures the child’s ability to the exact direction:
‘visualize’ in a realistic manner. “Draw a picture of a
house with a tree
behind it.” Analyze the
results:
Stage 1: Scribbling
– Random lines and forms that are not
identifiable; often drawn by a child
about 2-3 years old
Draw a picture of a house with
a tree behind it.

Stage 2: Fortuitous Realism

– You cannot accurately identify where
the tree is or where the house is… it
would be a guess; this is often the
drawing of a 3-4 year old
Stage 3: Failed Realism Draw a picture of a house with a
tree behind it.
-The tree is NOT
behind the
house; it may
be beside the
house,
juxtaposed on
top of the house,
or tucked
halfway behind
the house; often
drawn by a 4-5
year old
 Draw a picture of a house
Stage 4: Intellectual Realism with a tree behind it.
This will be a very
clever, but incorrect attempt.
The child, usually 5-6 years
old, appears to be very
smart, but in fact, cannot
visualize this correctly.

The child may draw a transparency

where the tree shows through the
house, or may put the house on
top of a hill way in the distance.
They may draw a 3-dimensional
house and put the tree on the side.
Stage 5: Visual Realism
The tree is behind the house. You can see very
little or none of the tree trunk. You can verify the
position of the tree by asking the child “Where are the
roots of your tree?”
This child can
correctly picture this
scene in their head,
and is often 6-7 years
old.

The colors (or lack

of colors) a child
selects does not
have any impact on
visual realization.
Draw a picture of a house with a tree behind it.
Never ask the child “What is this?” It is an insult to their
drawing ability. If you asked them to draw a picture of a
house with a tree behind it… then it IS a picture of a
house with a tree behind it! If you want more information
about the picture, simply say “Tell me about your
picture”.

Like all other areas of development, boys

normally lag behind girls.
The child should not be able to
observe
other children’s
drawings
while taking this test.
Any conversation you have with
Draw a picture of a house with a tree
the behind it.
 A child that has not reached the
stage of visual realism does not
have a full understanding of
spatial concepts… next to, beside,
on, over, under, inside, outside,
behind, in front of, in a row, etc.

The teacher or
parent who expects
this child to ‘line up
behind other
children’ or ‘put the
toy on top of the
box’ may be asking
an impossibility.
 In addition to his more famous 8-stage theory of psycho-
social development, Erik Erikson also theorized about social
– emotional development. He believed that males develop a
different pattern of thinking than females, partly due to
genetics and partly due to environmental influences. Erikson
developed a block-building task to demonstrate his theory.
 Give the teen-adult subject the command… “Build a
dramatic scene”. For younger child, you can use the
wording “Build an exciting scene.”
The subject should build in
isolation, without interference, and
be given an unlimited time limit.
If the subject asks questions or
indicates that they do not
understand the directions, do NOT
make any suggestion. Instead,
simply reassure them that this is
not a test, there are no right or
wrong answers, and they should
just do the best they can. (adults
are more hesitant than children)
Instruct the subject that when they
are finished they can explain their
scene to you.
Erikson concluded these tendencies:
MALES FEMALES
Structures are usually taller Structures are usually shorter
(comparatively) (comparatively)
If the scene is of some sort of If the scene is of some sort of
destruction, the destruction is destruction, there is usually
usually complete (no hope) hope of survival
Frequent use of towers Scene often suggests motion or
passageways
Lots of open spaces; lack of Builds secure areas with doors
doors and gates and gates
Few people are enclosed within In a situation depicting an
structures, especially without intruder, the intruder is always
escape a man, boy, or animal (and if it’s
an animal, it belongs to a boy)
Often builds a structure Frequently builds a
depicting a situation in which a combination of open and
hero can emerge (male closed spaces
rescuing a female is common)
 When the subject is done building, the
observer should say “tell me about your
scene” or “explain to me what is
happening in your scene”.
The observer may need to ask questions
pertinent to the scene, to discern whether
or not the subject is following the “norm”.
Erikson suggested that variations from the
“norm” MAY provide some clues to the
qualified therapist as to the social or
emotional development of the subject.

Example: the average

female would NOT build a
scene and have an intruder
be a girl or woman. If they
do, is it because there is an
aggressive or threatening
female in their life?