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2.9 DURABILITY THEORY

• 2.9.1 Introduction
• 2.9.2 Types of failure
• 2.9.3 Transport processes in concrete
• 2.9.4 Corrosion of reinforcement
• 2.9.5 Sulphate attack
• 2.9.6 Alkali-silica reaction
• 2.9.7 Frost attack
• 2.9.8 Salt crystallisation
• 2.9.9 Delayed Ettringite Formation
• Why Reinforced Concrete Structures Don’t Fall Down
Sources of Durability
Problems
Sources of durability problems

Constructio
n and
maintenanc
e 40%
Desig
n
50%

Material
s
10%
Types of Durability Problems
Typical concrete durability problems

Chlorid
Construction
e
def ects
attack
leading to
19%
corrosion
33%

Geotechnical
23%
AAR
6%
Other

19%
 Concrete in a Structure
As cast Surface
Much Poorer
Quality Concrete
Poorer Quality Concrete

Best Quality
Concrete
 2.9 DURABILITY THEORY
• 2.9.1 Introduction
• 2.9.2 Types of failure
• 2.9.3 Transport processes in concrete
• 2.9.4 Corrosion of reinforcement
• 2.9.5 Sulphate attack
• 2.9.6 Alkali-silica reaction
• 2.9.7 Frost attack
• 2.9.8 Salt crystallisation
• 2.9.9 Delayed Ettringite Formation
• Why Reinforced Concrete Structures Don’t Fall Down
Factors Affecting Durability
 2.9 DURABILITY THEORY
• 2.9.1 Introduction
• 2.9.2 Types of failure
• 2.9.3 Transport processes in concrete
• 2.9.4 Corrosion of reinforcement
• 2.9.5 Sulphate attack
• 2.9.6 Alkali-silica reaction
• 2.9.7 Frost attack
• 2.9.8 Salt crystallisation
• 2.9.9 Delayed Ettringite Formation
• Why Reinforced Concrete Structures Don’t Fall Down
 What is being
transported ?
• Ions ( e.g. Na+ and Cl-) may move
through the water

OR

• Water itself may move with the ions in it

 The Transport Processes
• Pressure driven flow
• Diffusion,
• Electromigration
• Thermal migration

Processes which Promote or

Inhibit Transport
• Adsorption (inhibits)
• Capillary suction (promotes)
• Osmosis (promotes)
 Electromigration - Where Does
the Voltage Come from?

• An external source such as leakage

from a direct current power supply

• Electrical potential of pitting corrosion

on reinforcing steel.
 Factors Affecting Durability
Factors Properties of Transport Deterioration
which can be the matrix Processes Processes
controlled
Hydrate Pressure driven Freeze-Thaw
Structure flow

Wa t e r t o Pore Diffusion Sulphate

c e m e n t ratio interconnection Attack
(formation
factor)

Curing Porosity (total Electromigration Alkali-silica

conditions pore volume) reaction

Environmental Pore fluid Thermal Reinforcement

conditions content Gradient Corrosion

Degree of Pore fluid Osmosis Salt

compaction chemistry Crystallisation

C e m e n t Ty p e Matrix Capillary
chemistry suction
Adsorption
 Reduce the porosity with w/c
ratio
Factors
which can be
Properties of
the matrix
Tr a n sp o rt
Processes
D e te r i o r a t io n
Processes
controlled
Hydrate Pressure driven Freeze-Thaw
flow
S tr u ct u r e
Wa t e r t o Pore Diffusion S u lp h at e
c e m e n t ratio in t e rc o n n e c t i o n Attack
(formation
factor)

Curing Porosity (total Electromigration A lk ali- s ili c a

c o n d itio n s pore volume) reaction

E n v iro n m e n ta l Pore fluid Thermal Reinforcem ent

conditions content Corrosion
G rad ien t
Degree of Pore fluid Osmosis Salt
c o m p a c tio n C ry s ta llis a tio n
c h e m is tr y
C e m e n t Ty p e Matrix C a p illa r y
c h e m is tr y suction
Adsorption
PFA will reduce Electromigration
Factors Properties of Transport Deterioration
which can be the matrix Processes Processes
controlled
Hydrate Pressure driven Freeze-Thaw
Structure flow

Wa t e r t o Pore Diffusion Sulphate

c e m e n t ratio interconnection Attack
(formation
factor)

Curing Porosity (total Electromigration Alkali-silica

conditions pore volume) reaction

Environmental Pore fluid Thermal Reinforcement

conditions content Gradient Corrosion

Degree of Pore fluid Osmosis Salt

compaction chemistry Crystallisation

C e m e n t Ty p e Matrix Capillary
chemistry suction
Adsorption
Using SRPC will reduce Adsorption
Factors Properties of Transport Deterioration
which can be the matrix Processes Processes
controlled
Hydrate Pressure driven Freeze-Thaw
Structure flow

Wa t e r t o Pore Diffusion Sulphate

c e m e n t ratio interconnection Attack
(formation
factor)

Curing Porosity (total Electromigration Alkali-silica

conditions pore volume) reaction

Environmental Pore fluid Thermal Reinforcement

conditions content Gradient Corrosion

Degree of Pore fluid Osmosis Salt

compaction chemistry Crystallisation

C e m e n t Ty p e Matrix Capillary
chemistry suction
Adsorption
Curing has two distinct
functions
1 To stop the concrete from drying out during
hydration. If this occurs a significant loss of
durability will occur.

2. To retain heat at the surface. This may be done for

the following reasons
i To prevent frost damage
(below 5oC)
ii. To increase early
strength
iii. To reduce temperature
Types of Pores
Pore Sizes
 2.9 DURABILITY THEORY
• 2.9.1 Introduction
• 2.9.2 Types of failure
• 2.9.3 Transport processes in concrete
• 2.9.4 Corrosion of reinforcement
• 2.9.5 Sulphate attack
• 2.9.6 Alkali-silica reaction
• 2.9.7 Frost attack
• 2.9.8 Salt crystallisation
• 2.9.9 Delayed Ettringite Formation
• Why Reinforced Concrete Structures Don’t Fall Down
The Corrosion Process
Moscow
Corrosion
 Electrochemical reactions
producing rust
Fe  2e- + Fe++ Anode
Fe(OH)2
1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e- 2(OH-) Cathode

4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2  4Fe(OH)3

(red rust - carbonation)

3Fe + 8OH-  Fe3O4 + 8e- + 4H2O

(black rust - chlorides)
 The most significant
deleterious agencies affecting
passivity and thereby
protection to reinforcement
• are:
Carbonation (neutralisation of the
alkaline pore fluid)
• Chloride ions
Carbonation depths
Carbonation
 The most significant
deleterious agencies affecting
passivity and thereby
protection to reinforcement
• are:
Carbonation (neutralisation of the
alkaline pore fluid)
• Chloride ions
Schematic
of
chloride
ingress
Schematic of
binding
with PFA
Cracks from Corrosion
Pitting
 The consequences of the
electrical nature of
• Reducing the area of the anode (eg by coating part of
corrosion:
the corroding steel) may increase corrosion elsewhere.
• Corroding areas may be located by measuring an increased
anodic potential.
• Application of a positive potential to the surface of the
concrete will stop the corrosion process (cathodic
protection).
• Stray currents from welding, conductor rails, contact
between different metals etc may produce rapid corrosion
by creating an anodic region.
• Using a cementitious material with a high resistivity, such
as a pozzolanic mix, will decrease corrosion.
 Anode and Cathode on
Structure AIR

ANODE

ANODE
Egypt
 2.9 DURABILITY THEORY
• 2.9.1 Introduction
• 2.9.2 Types of failure
• 2.9.3 Transport processes in concrete
• 2.9.4 Corrosion of reinforcement
• 2.9.5 Sulphate attack
• 2.9.6 Alkali-silica reaction
• 2.9.7 Frost attack
• 2.9.8 Salt crystallisation
• 2.9.9 Delayed Ettringite Formation
• Why Reinforced Concrete Structures Don’t Fall Down
Sulphate Attack
 Common sources of sulphate
• Groundwater
• Sulphate rich soils
• Sea water
• Demolition hardcore
 2.9 DURABILITY THEORY
• 2.9.1 Introduction
• 2.9.2 Types of failure
• 2.9.3 Transport processes in concrete
• 2.9.4 Corrosion of reinforcement
• 2.9.5 Sulphate attack
• 2.9.6 Alkali-silica reaction
• 2.9.7 Frost attack
• 2.9.8 Salt crystallisation
• 2.9.9 Delayed Ettringite Formation
• Why Reinforced Concrete Structures Don’t Fall Down
Frost Attack on Kerb
 2.9 DURABILITY THEORY
• 2.9.1 Introduction
• 2.9.2 Types of failure
• 2.9.3 Transport processes in concrete
• 2.9.4 Corrosion of reinforcement
• 2.9.5 Sulphate attack
• 2.9.6 Alkali-silica reaction
• 2.9.7 Frost attack
• 2.9.8 Salt crystallisation
• 2.9.9 Delayed Ettringite Formation
• Why Reinforced Concrete Structures Don’t Fall Down
 Salt Crystallisation

In these two examples there is no damage to the structure

(yet) On the left the water has come from the cooling units
above.
On the right it has probably come down the steps from outside.
The source of the salt is not clear. These 2 locations are well
away from the car park entrance.
 2.9 DURABILITY THEORY
• 2.9.1 Introduction
• 2.9.2 Types of failure
• 2.9.3 Transport processes in concrete
• 2.9.4 Corrosion of reinforcement
• 2.9.5 Sulphate attack
• 2.9.6 Alkali-silica reaction
• 2.9.7 Frost attack
• 2.9.8 Salt crystallisation
• 2.9.9 Delayed Ettringite Formation
• Why Reinforced Concrete Structures Don’t Fall Down
 Why should they fall
down?
• The corrosion process is a chemical reaction
between oxygen (from the air) and the
metal (steel).
• The air and water can move easily through
the concrete to the steel.
 The main reason why concrete
structures don’t fall down.
The main products of the reaction between
cement and water are:
• Calcium silicate hydrate (CSH gel) - this is
the main structural part.
• Lime (calcium hydroxide) – this provides
alkalinity that promotes the formation of the
passive film that protects the steel.
 Chlorides – break down the
passive film. Where do
they come from?
• External sources: road salt, sea water
• Internal sources: contaminated
materials
 Transport processes:
• Transport of fluids in solids: permeation
(pressure driven flow), capillary suction,
thermal gradient, osmosis, and electro-
osmosis.
• Transport of ions in fluids: diffusion,
electromigration.
 How to reduce transport rates
in your structures
Increase the depth of cover
or
Reduce the porosity (i.e.
the volume of voids) by:
• Reducing the
water/cementitious ratio
• Using pulverised fuel ash or Blastfurnace
slag (refines the porosity)
• Locally reducing the w/c ratio with
controlled permeability formwork
• Good compaction
 How to measure the transport
properties in your structure:
• Initial surface absorption
test,
• Figg gas permeability test,
• Electrical resistivity tests
 How the concrete stops the
chlorides
• The four cement compounds that make up
the CSH gel are:
• Dicalcium silicate, Tricalcium silicate,
Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite, Tricalcium
aluminate
• The aluminate reacts with chlorides to form
immobile chloro-aluminates.
How to protect your structure by
promoting the adsorption of
chlorides
• Do not: Use sulphate resisting
Portland cement – it has a lower aluminate
content.
• Do: Use pulverised fuel ash or
blastfurnace slag. They have additional
adsorption sites.
 How the chlorides get
moving again….
• The Carbonation
reaction between lime and
carbon dioxide to produce carbonates
• Causes corrosion directly removing
by alkalinity
• Makes chloro-aluminates
unstable
 How to reduce carbonation
• Reduce the transport of carbon dioxide by:
• Using a carbonation resisting coating or
using concrete with lower transport rates
(as for chlorides)
 Corrosion is an electrical
process; this may affect your
structure in the following ways
• Application of a negative potential to the steel will
stop corrosion (cathodic protection)
• Application of a positive potential to the steel (e.g.
from welding) will cause corrosion.
• Using a concrete with a high electrical resistivity
(e.g. with pfa) will reduce corrosion
 Thank you
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