Chapter 3 contd

Motion in Two Dimensions

Motion in Two Dimensions
 Using + or – signs is not always sufficient to fully
describe motion in more than one dimension
 Vectors can be used to more fully describe motion
 Will look at vector nature of quantities in more detail
 Still interested in displacement, velocity, and
acceleration
 Will serve as the basis of multiple types of motion in
future chapters
Position and Displacement
 The position of an
object is describedby
its position vector, r
 The displacement of
the object is defined as
the change in its
position
  
  r  rf  ri
General Motion Ideas
 In two- or three-dimensional kinematics,
everything is the same as as in one-
dimensional motion except that we must now
use full vector notation
 Positive and negative signs are no longer
sufficient to determine the direction
Average Velocity
 The average velocity is the ratio of the displacement
to the time interval for the displacement

 r
v avg 
t
 The direction of the average velocity is the direction
of the displacement vector
 The average velocity between points is independent
of the path taken
 This is because it is dependent on the displacement, also
independent of the path
Instantaneous Velocity
 The instantaneous
velocity is the limit of the
average velocity as Δt
approaches zero
 
 r dr
v  lim 
t 0 t dt
 As the time interval
becomes smaller, the
direction of the
displacement approaches
that of the line tangent to the
curve
Instantaneous Velocity, cont
 The direction of the instantaneous velocity
vector at any point in a particle’s path is along
a line tangent to the path at that point and in
the direction of motion
 The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity
vector is the speed
 The speed is a scalar quantity
Average Acceleration
 The average acceleration of a particle as it
moves is defined as the change in the
instantaneous velocity vector divided by the
time interval during which that change
occurs.
  
 v f  v i v
aavg  
tf  t i t
Average Acceleration, cont
 As a particle moves,
the direction of the
change in velocity is
found by vector
subtraction
  
v  v f  v i
 The average
acceleration is a vector
quantity directed along

v
Instantaneous Acceleration
 The instantaneous acceleration
 is the limiting
value of the ratio v t as Δt approaches
zero  
 v dv
a  lim 
t 0 t dt
 The instantaneous equals the derivative of the
velocity vector with respect to time
Producing An Acceleration
 Various changes in a particle’s motion may
produce an acceleration
 The magnitude of the velocity vector may change
 The direction of the velocity vector may change
 Even if the magnitude remains constant
 Both may change simultaneously
Kinematic Equations for Two-
Dimensional Motion
 When the two-dimensional motion has a constant
acceleration, a series of equations can be
developed that describe the motion
 These equations will be similar to those of one-
dimensional kinematics
 Motion in two dimensions can be modeled as two
independent motions in each of the two
perpendicular directions associated with the x and y
axes
 Any influence in the y direction does not affect the motion
in the x direction
Kinematic Equations, 2
 Position vector for a particle moving in the xy
plane r  x ˆi  yˆj
 The velocity vector can be found from the
position vector
 dr
v  v x ˆi  v y ˆj
dt
 Since acceleration is constant, we can also find
an expression
  for  the velocity as a function of
time: v f  v i  at
Kinematic Equations, 3
 The position vector can also be expressed as
a function of time:
   1 2
 rf  ri  v i t  at
2
 This indicates that the position vector is the sum
of three other vectors:
 The initial position vector
 The displacement resulting from the initial velocity
 The displacement resulting from the acceleration
Kinematic Equations, Graphical
Representation of Final Velocity
 The velocity vector can
be represented by its
components

 vf is generally not along

thedirection of either v i
or a
Kinematic Equations, Graphical
Representation of Final Position
 The vector
representation of the
position vector

 rf is generally not along

the same direction as v i

or as a
 
 vf and rf are generally
not in the same
direction
Graphical Representation
Summary
 Various starting positions and initial velocities
can be chosen
 Note the relationships between changes
made in either the position or velocity and the
resulting effect on the other
Projectile Motion
 An object may move in both the x and y
directions simultaneously
 The form of two-dimensional motion we will
deal with is called projectile motion
Assumptions of Projectile
Motion
 The free-fall acceleration is constant over the
range of motion
 It is directed downward
 This is the same as assuming a flat Earth over the
range of the motion
 It is reasonable as long as the range is small compared
to the radius of the Earth
 The effect of air friction is negligible
 With these assumptions, an object in projectile
motion will follow a parabolic path
 This path is called the trajectory
Projectile Motion Diagram
Analyzing Projectile Motion
 Consider the motion as the superposition of the
motions in the x- and y-directions
 The actual position at any time is given by:
   1 2
rf  ri  v i t  gt
2
 The initial velocity can be expressed in terms of its
components
 vxi = vi cos  and vyi = vi sin 
 The x-direction has constant velocity
 ax = 0
 The y-direction is free fall
 ay = -g
Effects of Changing Initial
Conditions
 The velocity vector
components depend on
the value of the initial
velocity
 Change the angle and
note the effect
 Change the magnitude
and note the effect
Analysis Model
 The analysis model is the superposition of
two motions
 Motion of a particle under constant velocity in the
horizontal direction
 Motion of a particle under constant acceleration in
the vertical direction
 Specifically, free fall
Projectile Motion Vectors
   1 2
 rf  ri  v i t  gt
2
 The final position is the
vector sum of the initial
position, the position
resulting from the initial
velocity and the
position resulting from
the acceleration
Projectile Motion –
Implications
 The y-component of the velocity is zero at the
maximum height of the trajectory
 The acceleration stays the same throughout
the trajectory
Range and Maximum Height of
a Projectile
 When analyzing projectile
motion, two
characteristics are of
special interest
 The range, R, is the
horizontal distance of the
projectile
 The maximum height the
projectile reaches is h
Height of a Projectile, equation
 The maximum height of the projectile can be
found in terms of the initial velocity vector:
v i2 sin2  i
h
2g
 This equation is valid only for symmetric
motion
Range of a Projectile, equation
 The range of a projectile can be expressed in
terms of the initial velocity vector:
v i sin 2 i
2
R
g
 This is valid only for symmetric trajectory
More About the Range of a
Projectile
Range of a Projectile, final
 The maximum range occurs at i = 45o
 Complementary angles will produce the
same range
 The maximum height will be different for the two
angles
 The times of the flight will be different for the two
angles
Projectile Motion – Problem
Solving Hints
 Conceptualize
 Establish the mental representation of the projectile moving
along its trajectory
 Categorize
 Confirm air resistance is neglected
 Select a coordinate system with x in the horizontal and y in
the vertical direction
 Analyze
 If the initial velocity is given, resolve it into x and y
components
 Treat the horizontal and vertical motions independently
Projectile Motion – Problem
Solving Hints, cont.
 Analysis, cont
 Analyze the horizontal motion using constant velocity
techniques
 Analyze the vertical motion using constant acceleration
techniques
 Remember that both directions share the same time
 Finalize
 Check to see if your answers are consistent with the
mental and pictorial representations
 Check to see if your results are realistic
Non-Symmetric Projectile
Motion
 Follow the general rules
for projectile motion
 Break the y-direction into
parts
 up and down or
 symmetrical back to
initial height and then
the rest of the height
 Apply the problem solving
process to determine and
solve the necessary
equations
 May be non-symmetric in
other ways
 A rock is thrown with an initial speed of 30 m/s at an angle of 600 above the
horizontal. As shown in the sketch, it is thrown from a canyon floor and goes up
into the air and then lands on the plateau, 20 m above the canyon floor. Where
does it hit the ground? Or, how far does it travel horizontally?

v0 x  v0 cos   30 cos 60  15m / s

v0 y  v 0 sin   30 sin 60  26m / s
1 1
y  y 0  v0 y t  a y t 2  0  26t  gt 2 but y  20 m (above the level ground)
2 2
1  b  b 2  4ac
 20  26t  (9.8)t (use quadratic formular to solve for t). Recall for ax  bx  c  0, x 
2 2 2

2 2a
 t1  0.9 s or t 2  4.4s . t 1 is the time the rock passes the level of the plateau on its way up
and t 2 is the time it lands on the plateau (which is the time we want).
 x  v 0 x t  15  4.4  66m
Uniform Circular Motion
 Uniform circular motion occurs when an object
moves in a circular path with a constant speed
 The associated analysis motion is a particle in
uniform circular motion
 An acceleration exists since the direction of the
motion is changing
 This change in velocity is related to an acceleration
 The velocity vector is always tangent to the path of
the object
Changing Velocity in Uniform
Circular Motion

 The change in the

velocity vector is due to
the change in direction

 The vector
 diagram
 
shows vf  v i  v
Centripetal Acceleration
 The acceleration is always perpendicular to
the path of the motion
 The acceleration always points toward the
center of the circle of motion
 This acceleration is called the centripetal
acceleration
Centripetal Acceleration, cont
 The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration vector
is given by
v2
aC 
r
 The direction of the centripetal acceleration vector is
always changing, to stay directed toward the center
of the circle of motion
Period
 The period, T, is the time required for one
complete revolution
 The speed of the particle would be the
circumference of the circle of motion divided
by the period
 Therefore, the period is defined as
2 r
T 
v
Tangential Acceleration
 The magnitude of the velocity could also be changing
 In this case, there would be a tangential acceleration
 The motion would be under the influence of both
tangential and centripetal accelerations
 Note the changing acceleration vectors
Total Acceleration
 The tangential acceleration causes the
change in the speed of the particle
 The radial acceleration comes from a change
in the direction of the velocity vector
Total Acceleration, equations
dv
 The tangential acceleration: at 
dt
v2
 The radial acceleration: ar  aC  
r
 The total acceleration:

 Magnitude a  a a2
r
2
t

 Direction
 Same as velocity vector if v is increasing, opposite if v is
decreasing
Relative Velocity
 Two observers moving relative to each other
generally do not agree on the outcome of an
experiment
 However, the observations seen by each are related
to one another
 A frame of reference can be described by a
Cartesian coordinate system for which an observer
is at rest with respect to the origin
Different Measurements,
example
 Observer A measures
point P at +5 m from
the origin
 Observer B measures
point P at +10 m from
the origin
 The difference is due to
the different frames of
reference being used
Different Measurements,
another example
 The man is walking on the
moving beltway
 The woman on the beltway
sees the man walking at his
normal walking speed
 The stationary woman sees
the man walking at a much
higher speed
 The combination of the
speed of the beltway and
the walking
 The difference is due to the
relative velocity of their
frames of reference
Example
Relative Velocity, generalized
 Reference frame SA is
stationary
 Reference frame SB is
moving to the right

relative to SA at v AB
 This also means
 that SA
moves at – vBA relative to
SB
 Define time t = 0 as that
time when the origins
coincide
Notation
 The first subscript represents what is being
observed
 The second subscript represents who is
doing the observing

 Example v AB
 The velocity of A as measured by observer B
 
V AB  VA  V B
Relative Velocity, equations
 The positions as seen from the two reference
frames are related through the velocity
  
 rPA  rPB  v BAt
 The derivative of the position equation will give the
velocity
 equation
 
 uPA  uPB  vBA

 u is the velocity of the particle P measured by observer A
PA
 u is the velocity of the particle P measured by observer B
PB
 These are called the Galilean transformation
equations
Acceleration in Different
Frames of Reference
 The derivative of the velocity equation will
give the acceleration equation
 The acceleration of the particle measured by
an observer in one frame of reference is the
same as that measured by any other
observer moving at a constant velocity
relative to the first frame.
 Solving Problems
Solution of problems involving relative motion in two dimensions involves
evaluation of vector equation. The evaluation or analysis of vector equation
is not limited to the use of Pythagora’s theorem, but significantly makes
use of geometric consideration like evaluating trigonometric ratios.

Generally, we attempt graphical solution. This is so because graphical solution is

intuitive and indicative of actual physical phenomenon. However, most of the
problem can equally be handled with the help of algebraic vector analysis,
involving unit vectors.
 Example 1:
A man, moving at 3 km/hr along a straight line, finds that the rain drops
are falling at 4 km/hr in vertical direction. Find the angle with which rain
drop hits the ground.

Solution
Let the man be moving in x-direction. Let us also denote man with “A”
and rain drop with “B”. Here, we need to know the direction of rain drop
with respect to ground i.e. the direction of vB
.
v A  3km / hr
vB  ?
     
v BA  4km / hr  v BA  v B  v A or v B  v BA  v A  3i  4 j in the direction
3
tan   with respect to the vertical
4
 Example 2:
A boy sitting in a car that is traveling due north at 65mph fires a bullet
travelling with a velocity of 185 mph due east. Recoil (the backward
movement of the gun resulting from the firing of the gun) is negligible.
Find the speed and direction of the bullet relative to the road.


| VBR | 185 2  65 2  196 mph
Example 3:
A boat velocity is 2 m/s in still water. a) If the boat crosses a river whose
current is 1 m/s, what is the velocity, in magnitude and direction, of the
boat relative to the shore?
b) What is the boat position relative to its starting point, after 3 min?
Solution (do it now)
A boat can travel 2.3 m/s in still water.  If the boat points directly across th
e stream whose current is 1.2 m/s, what is the velocity (magnitude and 
direction) of the boat relative to the shore?  The river is 12 m wide. How 
long does it take the boat to cross the river? What is the total distance
the boat travel in this time?
Example 4:
A boat is traveling across a river that flows due east at 8.50 m/s. The
compass heading of the boat is 15.0°. Relative to the water, the boat is
traveling straight forward (in the direction in which the boat is pointing) at
11.2 m/s. How fast and which way is the boat moving relative to the
banks of the river?

VBG

VBW=11.2m/s
150
ᶿ
VWG=8.5m/s