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2 Instrumentation - Calibration and Errors

The document discusses instrument calibration and error analysis. It explains that calibration involves comparing an instrument's output to a known standard over its measurement range. This ensures the instrument's accuracy is known. Calibration must be repeated periodically as instruments drift over time. Error analysis classifies errors as gross, systematic, or random. Systematic errors are consistent deviations caused by instrument or environmental factors, while random errors exist even after eliminating other errors and follow probability laws. Statistical analysis tools like mean, median, variance and standard deviation are used to analyze random errors.

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Wanjala William
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115 views

2 Instrumentation - Calibration and Errors

The document discusses instrument calibration and error analysis. It explains that calibration involves comparing an instrument's output to a known standard over its measurement range. This ensures the instrument's accuracy is known. Calibration must be repeated periodically as instruments drift over time. Error analysis classifies errors as gross, systematic, or random. Systematic errors are consistent deviations caused by instrument or environmental factors, while random errors exist even after eliminating other errors and follow probability laws. Statistical analysis tools like mean, median, variance and standard deviation are used to analyze random errors.

Uploaded by

Wanjala William
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTATION

1
CALIBRATION
•Process of comparing the output of the instrument under test
against the output of an instrument of known accuracy when the
same input (the measured quantity) is applied to both instruments

•Procedure
is carried out for a range of inputs covering the whole
measurement range of the instrument

•Calibration
ensures that the measuring accuracy of all instruments
used in a measurement system is known over the whole
measurement range, provided the instruments are used in the
same environmental conditions as those under which they were
calibrated

•Instruments used as a standard in calibration procedures are


usually of greater inherent accuracy than the process instruments
being calibrated 2
•Calibration must be repeated at prescribed intervals as the
characteristics of any instrument change over time, due to
ageing, mechanical wear, dirt, dust, fumes, chemicals

•The appropriate calibration interval usually determined by


practical experimentation

•Maximum permissible error bound before recalibration is usually


specified in instrument’s documented specifications

•The procedure involves steps/actions like visual inspection for


defects, zero adjustment, redrawing the output scale or altering
the scaling factors where the instrument output is part of a
automatic control / inspection system, repairing or even
scrapping the instrument

•Calibrationrecord – record obtained from calibration (usually in


3
tabular form); if in graphical form it is called a calibration curve
Instrument calibration chain

4
ERRORS
•Difference between true value of the variable and the value
indicated by the instrument
•Classified as
Gross errors
Systematic errors
Random errors

a) Gross Errors
•Due to inexperience or carelessness on the part of the human
user e.g.
Mistakes in readings, recording or calculating results
Also due to incorrect instrument adjustments
•Gross errors cannot be treated mathematically
•Minimised by:
Exercising care when taking readings, recording the readings
and calculating results 5
Taking at least 3 or more readings, preferably by different people
b) Systematic Errors
•Mainly result from the instrument's shortcomings and the
characteristics of the material used in the instrument, e.g.
defective or worn parts, ageing effects, environmental effects
etc

•A constant deviation of the operation of an instrument is


called a systematic error

•Systematic errors are thus errors in the output readings of a


measurement system that are consistently on one side of the
correct reading, i.e. either all the errors are positive or they are
all negative

•Types of systematic errors:


Instrumental errors
Environmental errors 6
Observational errors
(i) Instrumental errors are caused by
1. Shortcomings of instruments
•Due to mechanical structure of the instruments e.g. friction in
bearings of moving parts, irregular spring tensions, reduction in
tension due to improper handling, hysteresis, gear backlash,
spring stretching etc.
•Avoided by
Selecting the right instrument and using its proper procedure for
measurement
Recognizing the effects of such errors and applying the proper
correction factors
Calibrating the instrument carefully against a standard

2. Misuse of instruments
•E.g. poor initial adjustments, improper zero setting, using leads
of high resistance (consider a resistance thermometer separated
from other parts of the measurement system by ≈ 100m of 20
gauge copper wire having 7Ω resistance and a temperature 7
coefficient of 1m Ω /°C)
3. Loading effects due to improper way of using the instrument
•E.g. connecting a well calibrated voltmeter across two points of
a high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter connected across
in a low resistance circuit gives accurate readings
•Errors due to loading effect can be avoided by intelligent and
correct use of an instrument

(ii) Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the


measuring instrument
•E.g. Temperature changes, pressure changes, thermal e.m.f,
effect of external fields, ageing of equipment and frequency
sensitivity
•To reduce environmental errors:
Use proper correction factors and the information from the
manufacturer
Use arrangements that keep the surrounding conditions
constant, e.g air conditioning, temperature control enclosures
8
etc
Hermetically seal the instrument components to reduce
dust, humidity effects
Use magnetic or electrostatic shields or screen to minimise
external fields’ effects
Use equipment immune to such environmental effects e.g.
resistance material with a low resistance temperature
coefficient for environments with temperature fluctuations

(ii) Observational errors are errors introduced by the observer


•E.g. Parallax error while reading a meter scale, wrong scale
selection etc.
•To eliminate these errors, use instruments with mirrors, knife-
edged pointers, digital displays

9
c) Random Errors
•These exist even after eliminating systematic and gross
errors
•Are generally small perturbations, both positive and negative,
on either side of the correct value
•Since they are small values, they are usually only of concern
when high accuracy is required
•Follow the laws of probability and so can be statistically
analyzed and treated mathematically

•Cannot be corrected by calibration


•Can only be reduced by increasing the number of readings
and using statistical methods to obtain the best reading
approximation

10
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Arithmetical Mean and Median
• For a set of n measurements x1, x2 …… xn of a constant
quantity, the mean is given by:
in

x1  x 2  ......  xn  xi
xmean   i 1
n n
•The median is the middle value when the measurements in
the data set are written down in ascending order of magnitude
•For a set of n measurements x1, x2 …… xn of a constant
quantity, written down in ascending order of magnitude, the
median value is given by:

xmedian  x ( n  1) / 2
•Thus, for a set of 9 measurements x1, x2 …… x9 arranged in
order of magnitude, the median value is x(1+9)/2 = x5
• For an even number of measurements, the median value is
midway between the two centre values, i.e. for 10
measurements x1, x2 …… x10, the median value is given by:
(x5 + x6)/2

Standard deviation and variance


•Way of examining how the measurement values are
distributed about the mean value

•Start by calculating the deviation (error) di of each


measurement xi from the mean value xmean
•The variance (V) is then given by

•The standard deviation (δ) is the square root of the variance

Example:
Calculate the mean, median, variance and standard deviation
for these measurement figures:

409 406 402 407 405 404 407 404 407 407 408
Solution:

Mean = ∑(409,406,402,407,405,404,407,404,407,407,408) / 11
= 406.0

Arranging the figures in ascending order:

402,404,404,405,406,407,407,407,407,408,409

Median = 407

Drawing a table of measurements and deviations for the data:

Hence variance V = 4.2 and standard deviation δ = 2.05

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