Lesson 5

Transistor Behaviour and Models

Learning Outcomes
• Name the possible regions of operation of a
bipolar junction transistor
• Analyse simple transistor circuits using the
relevant model for each region
• Identify the region of operation of a transistor
using circuit analysis
Transistor applications
• Amplification
• Switching
Two Types
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
- npn and pnp
- conduction due to majority carriers and
minority carriers
• Field Effect Transistor (FET)
- conduction due to majority carriers only
Semiconductor Material
• In pure or intrinsic
semiconductor material
(for example, Silicon,
Si), there are four
valence electrons.
• Each valence electron
make a covalent bond
with a neighbouring Si
atom.

Boylestad, R. L., and Nashelsky, L. (2013), “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”, Pearson, pp. 4 – 9.
Semiconductor Material
• This lattice structure of
Si is very stable, and
consequently, there are
very few free electrons
for conduction in
intrinsic Si.
• Therefore, Si, in its
intrinsic form, is not a
good semiconductor.

Boylestad, R. L., and Nashelsky, L. (2013), “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”, Pearson, pp. 4 – 9.
Doping of intrinsic Si
• To improve the conduction, Si is doped with
either a Group III or Group V material.
• Group III material – These material have three
valence electrons in the outer shell of each
atom, examples are: Boron, Gallium, and Indium
• Group V material – These material have five
valence electrons in the outer shell of each
atom, examples are: Antimony, Arsenic and
Phosphorus
n-type material
• If intrinsic Si is doped
with a Group V
material (say
Antimony, Sb), it
would make four
covalent bonds, and
an excess electron
would be available for
conduction. This
makes it an n-type
material.

Boylestad, R. L., and Nashelsky, L. (2013), “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”, Pearson, pp. 4 – 9.
p-type material
• If intrinsic Si is doped
with a Group III
material (say Boron,
B), it would make
four covalent bonds,
with a vacant position
for an electron (hole).
This hole is available
for conduction,
making it a p-type
material.

Boylestad, R. L., and Nashelsky, L. (2013), “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”, Pearson, pp. 4 – 9.
Majority Carriers and Minority
Carriers
• Majority carriers – In n-type material these
are the electrons; In p-type material, these are
the holes.
• Minority carriers – In n-type material these are
the holes; In p-type material, these are the
electrons.
Circuit Symbol of Transistor
and Current Flow
• npn configuration
Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Construction

http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/info/comp/active/BiPolar/page1.html
Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Operation: Neutral

http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/info/comp/active/BiPolar/page1.html
Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Operation: Reverse biased B-C junction

http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/info/comp/active/BiPolar/page1.html
Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Operation: Forward biased B-E and RB B-C junctions

http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/info/comp/active/BiPolar/page2.html
Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Operation: Forward biased B-E and RB B-C junctions

http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/info/comp/active/BiPolar/page2.html
Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Operation: Forward biased B-E and RB B-C junctions
• Arrows show the flow of electrons. Current flows are in
opposite directions.

http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/info/comp/active/BiPolar/page3.html
Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Operation: Forward biased B-E and RB B-C junctions
• Currents shown are conventional currents.

+¿ 

http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/info/comp/active/BiPolar/page3.html
Output Characteristics
Operating Regions
B-E Junction B-C Junction
Cut-off Reverse Biased Reverse Biased
Forward Active Forward Biased Reverse Biased
Saturation Forward Biased Forward Biased
Reverse Active Reverse Biased Forward Biased
Model for Forward Active Region
• Transistor model:
• Transistor
equations:
i 
vBE  VT ln  C 
 IS 

• Transistor simplified model:

Model for Forward Active Region
• Transistor Equations • Transistor simplified model:
i 
vBE  VT ln  C 
 IS 

• IS is called the transistor saturation current;

•  is called the forward current gain.
•  has a range typically from 50 to 400.
Model for Cut-off Region
• Open circuits between both junctions, B – E and
B – C.
Model for Saturation Region
• For saturation
region:
iC  iB
Circuit Design
• Select a transistor according to the region it
should operate
• This can be either in: forward active, cut-off or
saturation
Circuit Analysis
• Assume a region of operation (forward active,
cut-off or saturation)
• Use the corresponding model
• If an inconsistency occurs in calculations,
assume a different region of operation
• Continue the analysis with the new model
• Continue this way until consistent results are
obtained
Analysis Strategies
• Case 1: Transistor as an amplifier (operating in
forward active region)
v B E = V B E ,o n
iC = b iB

N o In s te a d :
S a t u r a t io n r e g io n w i th
vC E > V C E ,s a t ?
v B E = V B E ,o n
v C E = V C E ,s a t

Yes

In s te a d : N o
C u t -o f f r e g io n w i th i B , iC > 0 ?
iB = iC = 0

Yes

O K
Analysis Strategies
• Case 2a: Transistor as a switch (expect
transistor to be saturated)
v B E = V B E ,o n
v C E = V C E ,s a t

N o In s te a d :
F o r w a r d - a c t iv e r e g io n w i th
iC < b iB ?
v B E = V B E ,o n
iC = b i B

Yes

In s te a d : N o
C u t-o ff r e g io n w ith i B , iC > 0 ?
iB = iC = 0

Yes

O K
Analysis Strategies
• Case 2b: Transistor as a switch (expect
transistor to be cut-off)

iB = iC = 0

N o In s te a d :
F o r w a r d - a c t iv e r e g io n w i th
vBE < V B E ,o n ?
v B E = V B E ,o n
iC = b iB

Yes

O K
Example
• The transistor used in the circuit below has
parameters VBE,on = 0.7V, VCE,sat = 0.2V and  =
50. Find the voltage VO. Repeat the analysis for 
=150.
Method of Solution
• Assume the transistor to operate in forward
active region. Replace it with the appropriate
model.
Method of Solution
• Calculate IB
• Then IC and VCE
• Check whether VCE > VCE,sat
• If not replace the transistor with saturation
region model and recalculate
Method of Solution
• Using KVL down the left-hand path:
Method of Solution
• Using KVL down the middle path:
Method of Solution
• Since VCE = VO = 5.35 V > VCE,sat and IB, IC >0,
our initial assumption is correct.
• That is the transistor operates in Forward Active
region.
Method of Solution …
• Repeat calculations for  = 150.

1
Method of Solution …
• Still IB = 0.093 mA.
• However, now
• Therefore,

1
Method of Solution …
• This time
• Therefore, our initial assumption (Forward Active
operation) is wrong.
• Replace the transistor with saturation model
and continue.
Method of Solution …
• This gives VO = 0.2 V
• Still IB = 0.093 mA
and
Next Lesson
• Lesson 6: The Transistor Inverter