Organizing and Presenting Qualitative Data

Bella Yolanda
PBI 3B 2019
 Agenda Layout
33.1 Tabulating Data

33.2 Ten Ways of Organizing and Presenting Data Analysis

Narative and Biographical Approaches to data

33.3 Analysis

33.4 Systematic Approached to Data Analysis

33.5 Methodological Tools for Analysing Qualitative Data

Tabulating Data
Tables are useful for data reduction and data display key
elements of qualitative data analysis as mentioned in Chapter 32 (Miles and
Huberman, 1984, 1994). The following example illustrates simple summary
and clear, tabulated data presentation and commentary. It derives from a
doctoral thesis. Summary of the interview data. The issues that emerge from
the interview data are striking in several ways. What characterizes the data is
the widespread agreement of the respondents on the issues, for example:
1. There was absolute unanimity in the responses to questions 7 and 9.
2. There was very considerable, though not absolute, unanimity on question
11.
3. In addition to the unanimity observed in point (1), there was additional
unanimity amongst the primary teachers in respect of question 11.
4. In addition to the considerable, though not absolute, unanimity observed
in point (2), there was much unanimity amongst the primary teachers
concerning question 6.
 Tabulating Data
English is seen
instrumentally, but this
message has
to be qualified, as many
students gain employment
English performance is
In some quarters, and university entrance
weak in all its aspects
knowledge of English even though their English
reading, writing, speaking,
culture is seen to be an is weak. The fact that
and listening, but it is
important element in English is an international
particularly weak in
learning English; language has limited
speaking and writing.
this was refuted by the effect on student
teachers in this sample. motivation or
achievement.
1 2 3 4 5

Local cultural factors Poor teaching and learning

exert an influence on are significant
learning English contributors to poor
performance, in several
areas

From the interview data it can be seen that the size of

the problems and issues to be faced in English language
teaching and learning is vast.
 Ten Ways of Organizing and Presenting Data Analysis
Organizing and presenting data (e.g. data
display) are key issues in qualitative data analysis.
Here we present ten ways of organizing and 1. Organizing, analysing and presenting data by groups of
presenting analysis: the first two methods are by people
people, the next two are by issue or theme, the fifth is 2. Organizing, analysing and presenting data by individual
by instrument, the sixth is by case studies, the people
seventh is by narrative account(s), the eighth is by 3. Organizing, analysing and presenting data by issues or
events, whilst the ninth keeps these events and puts themes
them in a chronology, by time sequence and time 4. Organizing, analysing and presenting data by research
frame. question
The final method is by theoretical 5. Organizing, analysing and presenting data by
perspectives, enabling the researcher to gain some data-collection instrument
theoretical purchase on the phenomena under 6. Organizing, analysing and presenting data by case
investigation. However, these are presentational study or studies
devices rather than analytical devices. The methods 7. Organizing, analysing and presenting data by
set out below deliberately indicate alternatives to narrative(s)
coding; there is a risk that qualitative data analysts 8. Organizing, analysing and presenting data by event
almost automatically turn to coding, but, as we 9. Organizing, analysing and presenting data by time
indicate in Chapters 34 to 37, coding is only useful sequence and time frame
when it is fit for purpose, and there are many 10. Organizing, analysing and presenting data by theoretical
instances where it is an encumbrance and not fit for perspectives
purpose in qualitative data analysis.
 Narative and Biographical Approaches
to data Analysis
Following these stages of text selection, analysis, interpretation and checking is the
construction of the final narrative. This can be undertaken in several ways, for example:
Narrative and biographical • by temporal sequence (a chronology);
approaches are powerful ways of • by a sequence of causal relations;
analysing and presenting qualitative • by key participants;
data. Bruner (1986) remarks that • by key actions;
humans make meaning in terms of • by emergent or key themes;
‘storied text’ which catch the human • by key issues and clusters of issues;
condition, human intentionality and • by biographies of the participants;
the vividness of human experience • by critical or key events;
very fully (pp. 14, 19) and the multiple • by turning points in a life history or biography;
perspectives and lived realities • by different perspectives;
(‘subjective landscapes’) of • by key decision points;
participants. • by key behaviours;
• by individual case studies or a collective analysis of the unfolding of events for many
Narratives and biographies may cases/participants over time.
have a chronology (but this is not a
requirement, as some narratives are
structured by logical relations or
psychological coherence rather than
chronology).
Systematic Approached to Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis can be very systematic. Becker and Geer (1960)
indicate how this might proceed:
• Comparing different groups simultaneously and over time;
• Matching the responses given in interviews to observed behaviour;
• Analysing deviant and negative cases;
• Calculating frequencies of occurrences and responses;
• Assembling and providing sufficient data but keeping the separate raw
data from analysis.

Qualitative data analysis here is inevitably interpretive, hence is less a

completely accurate representation and more of a reflexive, reactive
interaction between the researcher and the decontextualized data that are
already
interpretations of a social encounter.
 In practical terms it means that the researcher 7. uneven reliability (the researcher may
may be selective in her focus, or that the research overlook the fact that some sources are more
may be influenced by the subjective features of the reliable/unreliable than others);
researcher. Robson (1993, pp. 374–5) and Lincoln 8. missing data (the issue for which there are
and Guba (1985, pp. 354–5) suggest that such incomplete data may be overlooked or
subjective features can include and/or be subject to: neglected);
9. revision of hypotheses (researchers may over-
1. data overload (humans may be unable to handle react or under-react to new data);
large amounts of data); 10. confidence in judgement (researchers may
2. first impressions (early data analysis may affect have greater confidence than is tenable in their
later data collection and analysis); final judgements);
3. availability of people (e.g. how representative 11. co-occurrence may be mistaken for
these are and how to know if missing people association;
and data might be important); 12. inconsistency (subsequent analyses of the
4. information availability (easily accessible same data may yield different results).
information may receive greater attention than
hard to obtain data); The issue here is that great caution and self-
5. Positive instances (researchers may over- awareness must be exercised by the researcher in
emphasize confirming data and under‑emphasize conducting qualitative data analysis, as the
disconfirming data); analysis and the findings may say more about the
6. internal consistency (the unusual, unexpected or researcher than about the data.
novel may be under-treated);
Methodological Tools for Analysing Qualitative Data

Analytic induction is a term and process that was introduced by Znaniecki (1934) in
deliberate opposition to statistical methods of data analysis. LeCompte and Preissle
(1993, p. 254) suggest that the process is akin to the several steps set out above, in that:
(a) data are scanned to generate categories of phenomena; (b) relationships between these
categories are sought; (c) working typologies and summaries are written on the basis of
the data examined; (d) these are then refined by subsequent cases and analysis; (e)
negative and discrepant cases are deliberately sought to modify. Denzin (1970, p. 192)
uses the term ‘analytical induction’ to describe the broad strategy and sequence of
participant observation that is set out below :

1. A rough definition of the phenomenon to be explained is formulated.

2. A hypothetical explanation of that phenomenon is formulated.
3. One case is studied in the light of the hypothesis, with the object of determining
whether or not the hypothesis fits the facts in that case.
Methodological Tools for Analysing Qualitative Data

4. If the hypothesis does not fit the facts, either the hypothesis is reformulated or the
phenomenon to be explained is redefined, so that the case is excluded.
5. Practical certainty may be attained after a small number of cases has been examined,
but the discovery of negative cases disproves the explanation and requires a
reformulation.
6. This procedure of examining cases, redefining the phenomenon, and reformulating
the hypothesis is continued until a universal relationship is established, each negative
case calling for a redefinition or a reformulation

A more deliberate seeking of disconfirming (negative) cases is advocated by

Bogdan and Biklen (1992, p. 72). Here the researcher searches for cases which do not fit
the other data, or cases, or that do not fit expected patterns of findings.
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Thank you