METHODS OF

PHILOSOPHIZING

Prepared by: Ms. Sarah Joy Tomias

You’re at a fork in the road in which one direction
leads to the City of Lies (where everyone always
lies) and the other to the City of Truth (where
everyone always tells the truth). There’s a person at
the fork who lives in one of the cities, but you’re
not sure which one. What question could you ask
the person to find out which road leads to the City
of Truth?
A farmer wants to cross a river and take with him a
wolf, a goat, and a cabbage. He has a boat, but it
can only fit himself plus either the wolf, the goat, or
the cabbage. If the wolf and the goat are alone on
one shore, the wolf will eat the goat. If the goat
and the cabbage are alone on the shore, the goat
will eat the cabbage. How can the farmer bring the
wolf, the goat, and the cabbage across the river
without anything being eaten?
Four people are crossing a bridge at night, so they
all need a torch—but they just have one that only
lasts 15 minutes. Alice can cross in one minute, Ben
in two minutes, Cindy in five minutes and Don in
eight minutes. No more than two people can cross
at a time; and when two cross, they have to go at
the slower person’s pace. How do they get across in
15 minutes?
“How can truth have
different
interpretations”
 WHAT IS
PHILOSOPHIZING?
 - Is to think or express oneself in a
philosophical manner.

PHILOSOPHIZING
- It considers or discusses (a matter)
from a philosophical standpoint.
What are the methods of
philosophizing?
1.Phenomenology
2.Existentialism
3.Postmodernism
4.logic
REALITY IS MADE UP OF EVENTS PERCEIVED
AND UNDERSTOOD IN THE HUMAN
CONSCIOUSNESS

PHENOMENOLOGY
 Founded by Edmund Husserl.

 Also the Father of Phenomenology.

 The word “phenomenon” comes

directly from the Greek word

(Phainomenon), meaning appearance.

 Truth is based on the person’s

consciousness.
PHENOMENOLOGY

STUDY OF LIVED EXPERIENCE.

IT IS CONCERNED WITH THE STUDY OF PHENOMENA

THAT ARISE FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF BEING IN THE

WORLD.

REALITY CAN BE GRASP BY AND THROUGH STRUCTURES OF CONSCIOUSNESS, BY

APPLYING WHAT HE CALLED “INTENTIONALITY” TO THE OBJECT OF THE STUDY.

PHENOMENOLOGY

FOR HUSSERL - TO ACHIEVE DEEPER

UNDERSTANDING OF AN OBJECT OF STUDY, A

RESEARCHER COULD QUARANTINE THEIR PERSONAL

JUDGEMENTS CALLED “BRACKETING” SO THAT

PRECONCEIVED NOTIONS DO NOT INTERFERE WITH

THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL INQUIRY.

WE ARE OUR CHOICES.

EXISTENTIALISM
 First ever existentialist

 Insisted that the authentic

self was the personally

chosen self, as opposed to the

public or “herd” identity.

EXISTENTIALISM

The notion is that humans exist first and then each individual

spends a lifetime changing their essence or nature.

In simpler terms, existentialism is a philosophy concerned with finding self

and the meaning of life through free will, choice, and personal responsibility.
No one has the authority to define truth or impose
upon others his idea of moral right and wrong.

POSTMODERNISM
 Believe that no definite terms,

boundaries, or absolute truths exist.

 Believe that truth is relative, and

truth is up to each individual to

determine for himself.

 There isn’t such a thing as absolute

truth.
Philosophy should be consistent with the success
of modern science.

ANALYTICAL PHILOSOPHY
 He is generally credited with being one

of the founders of Analytic Philosophy,

and almost all the

various Analytic movements throughout

the 20th Century

(particularly Logicism, Logical

Positivism and Ordinary Language

Philosophy) 
 is a 20th Century movement in philosophy which holds that

philosophy should apply logical techniques in order to

attain conceptual clarity, and that philosophy should be consistent

with the success of modern science.

 Conviction that to some degree, philosophical problems, puzzles, and

errors are rooted in language and can be solved or avoided by a sound

understanding of language and careful attention to its workings.

It deals only with propositions that are capable of
being true and false.

LOGICAL AND CRITICAL

THINKING
 is centered in the analysis and

construction of arguments.
 Logic is a method of

maintaining consistency within

our set of knowledge.

 TWO

TWO TYPES OF BASIC REASONING

INDUCTIVE
DEDUCTIVE
Is based from observations in  Draws conclusion from
order to make generalizations. usually one broad
Often applied in prediction, judgement or definition and
forecasting, or behavior. one more specific assertion.
Distinguishing
Truth and
Opinion
 Appeal to Pity
FALLACIES (Argumentum ad misericordiam)

An appeal to pity attempts to persuade using emotion—specifically, sympathy—rather

than evidence.

Example:
 When you did not finish an assignment on time, you tell your teacher about how
your printer was out of ink, but that you didn't want to ask your mom to go to the
store because she works nights, doesn't get much sleep, and she was sleeping.
 Appeal to Ignorance
FALLACIES (Argumentum ad ignorantiam)

Whatever has not been proved false must be true.

Example:

 Since you haven't been able to prove your innocence, I must assume you're guilty.
 She didn't say she doesn't like you, so she’s probably interested.
 FALLACIES

Equivocation

a fallacy caused by the double meaning of a word.

Example:

 Plane is a flat surface; but I enjoy riding a plane.

 Where can I find a gold mine? I want all of the gold in the world to be mine .
 FALLACIES

Composition

arises when one infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of
some part of the whole.

Example:

 If someone stands up out of their seat at a football match, they can see better.
Therefore, if everyone stands up, they can all see better.
 FALLACIES

Division

error in logic that occurs when one reasons that something that is true for a whole must
also be true of all or some of its parts.

Example:

 Women in the United States are paid less than men. Therefore, my mom must
make less money than my dad.
 FALLACIES

Against the person (Argumentum ad hominem)

Means “argument to the man”. An ad hominem argument is one that is used to counter
another argument, but it is based on feelings of prejudice (often irrelevant to the
argument), rather than facts, reason or logic.

Example:

 Stating that one’s age precludes him from being able to make an intelligent or
meaningful argument – “You are clearly just too young to understand.”
 FALLACIES

Appeal to the force (Argumentum ad baculum)

committed when one appeals to force or the threat of force to bring about the
acceptance of a conclusion.

Example:

 Suppose a manager said to an employee, “You should choose to work more

overtime at the same rate of pay. After all, you wouldn’t want to loose your job,
would you?”
 FALLACIES

Appeal to the people (argumentum ad populum)

that concludes that a proposition must be true because many or most people believe it,
often concisely encapsulated as: "If many believe so, it is so."

Example:

 Everyone's doing it; therefore, it must be good.

 In a court of law, the jury vote by majority; therefore, they will always make the
correct decision.
 FALLACIES

False Cause (Post Hoc)

the fallacy committed when an argument mistakenly attempt to establish a causal

connection.

Example:

 Rachel went outside to grill hamburgers and it started to rain. Therefore, grilling
hamburgers causes rain.
 Tom bought a new muscle car and gas prices went up $.20 per gallon. Therefore,
buying a new muscle car will make gas prices go up
 FALLACIES

Hasty generalization

is a fallacy in which a conclusion is not logically justified by sufficient or unbiased

evidence. It is basically making a claim based on evidence that it just too small.

Example:

 A group of teenagers vandalized the park, all teenagers are so destructive and
irresponsible.
 My father smoked four packs of cigarettes a day since age fourteen and lived until
age sixty-nine. Therefore, smoking really can’t be that bad for you.
 FALLACIES

Begging the question (Petitio Principii)

occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of
supporting it. In other words, you assume without proof the stand/position, or a
significant part of the stand, that is in question.

Example:

 Paranormal activity is real because I have experienced what can only be described
as paranormal activity.
 People like to eat because we are biologically influenced to eat.(true)
Thank You!