DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

18AD24 – VEHICLE BODY ENGINEERING

28-04-2021
 COMMERCIAL VEHICLES

 Introduction

 Light Commercial Vehicles in India

 Heavy Commercial Vehicles in India

 Types of Light commercial vehicles

 Types of Heavy commercial trucks

 INTRODUCTION
 Commercial vehicles are vehicles that
transport goods or passengers for profit.

 Examples of commercial vehicles include

semi-trucks, box trucks, vans, buses,
taxicabs and trailers. 

 Vehicles over a certain weight are

also considered commercial vehicles.
 GROSS VEHICLE WEIGHT RATING
 The GVWR is a safety standard used to prevent the overloading of trucks.

 It's the maximum safe operating weight of a vehicle, and it includes the net
weight of the vehicle itself, plus passengers, drivers, fuel, and cargo.

 The GVWR of a truck does not change after a manufacturer determines it

for a vehicle.

 The vehicle manufacturer determines the GVWR by considering the

combined weight of the strongest weight-bearing components, such as the
axles; and the weaker components, such as the body, frame, ​suspension, and
tires. This determines the vehicle's class, which determines the regulations
that it needs to follow
 LIGHT DUTY TRUCKS
The light-duty trucks category includes
commercial truck classes 1, 2, and 3.

 Class 1: This class of truck has a GVWR of 0–

6,000 pounds or 0–2,722 kilograms.

 Class 2: This class of truck has a GVWR of

6,001–10,000 pounds or 2,722–4,536 kilograms.
 MEDIUM DUTY TRUCKS
This category includes commercial truck classes 4, 5, and 6.

 Class 3: This class of truck has a GVWR of 10,001–14,000 pounds or

4,536–6,350 kilograms.

 Class 4: This class of truck has a GVWR of 14,001–16,000 pounds or

6,351–7,257 kilograms.

 Class 5: This class of truck has a GVWR of 16,001–19,500 pounds or

7,258–8,845 kilograms.

 Class 6: This class of truck has a GVWR of 19,501–26,000 pounds or

8,846-11,793 kilograms.
 HEAVY DUTY TRUCKS
The heavy-duty trucks category includes commercial truck
classes 7 and 8. Drivers of vehicles in these classes are required
to have a Class B commercial driving license (CDL) to operate
the vehicle.

 Class 7: This class of truck has a GVWR of 26,001 to 33,000

pounds or 11,794–14,969 kilograms.

 Class 8: This class of truck has a GVWR of greater than

33,001 pounds or 14,969 kilograms and includes all tractor-
trailers.
 LIGHT COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
 For transportation of goods in and around the city, the most
easy to use and the most productive vehicles to be used are
the light commercial vehicles (LCV). 

 LCVs include pickup trucks, mini vans, and three wheeler

vehicles.

 These vehicles are used by companies as well as private firms as they

are small in size and can move through small streets and roads with
ease.

 These compact trucks although are small, they are firm, robust, and
tough- built and provide the best performance.
TOP 5 LIGHT COMMERCIAL
VEHICLES IN INDIA
TATA ACE
 TATA ACE
 The Tata Ace runs on a Tata 275 IDI, 800cc Dicor and Naturally
Aspirated Water Cooled engine.

 There are two cylinders present in this vehicle. The displacement

of this mini truck goes up to 702 cc.

 The maximum power attained is in the range of 11.3 bhp @ 3,000

rpm to 40 bhp @ 3,750 rpm and torque in the range of 31.6 Nm @
1,600 – 1,800 rpm to 94 Nm @ 2,000 – 2,500 rpm.

 The fuel tank has the capacity of holding 70 litres of fuel and the
mileage of this vehicle is 17.9 kmpl. The gradeability achieved is
21%.
 GRADEABILITY

 Gradeability by definition is the ability of a

commercial vehicle to negotiate a
grade(slope/acclivity) in Gross Vehicle
Weight (GVW) condition and it can vary
from 0% to 45% (maximum). ... Example:
A truck with a gradeability of 7% at 60 mph
can maintain 60 mph on a grade with a
rise of 7%.
MAHINDRA JEETO
 MAHINDRA JEETO
 It runs on a single water cooled cylinder.

 The displacement touches up to 625 cc. The

maximum power attained by this mini truck is 16
bhp @ 3600 rpm and the maximum torque
achieved is 38 Nm @ 1200-2200 rpm.

 The fuel tank holds up to 45 litres of fuel and the

mileage of this vehicle is 37.6 kmpl.
FORCE TRUMP
 FORCE TRUMP
 The Force Trump backs up the third position in top 5
LCVs in India.
 An engine of TG 2000 F (C) sequential injection has
been fixed.
 This mini truck runs on three cylinders. The
displacement obtained is 1974 cc. The maximum
power produced is 31 bhp along with a maximum
torque of 124 Nm.
 90 litres of fuel is held in the fuel tank and the mileage
of this vehicle is 21 kmpl.
ASHOK LEYLAND DOST
 ASHOK LEYLAND DOST
 The Ashok Leyland Dost runs on a 1.5 litre 3 cylinder
CNG engine.

 The displacement reaches up to 1478 cc. The maximum

power obtained is 45 bhp @ 3300 rpm along with a
maximum torque of 105 Nm @ 1600-2400 rpm.

 The fuel tank holds up to 120 litres of fuel. This truck

offers a mileage of 19.6 kmpl.
MAHINDRA MAXXIMO
 MAHINDRA MAXXIMO

 This mini truck runs on a 4 stroke spark ignition with a water

cooled engine.

 The number of cylinders present are two.

 The displacement reaches up to 909 cc. The maximum power

obtained is 18.8 bhp @ 3600 rpm with a maximum torque of
57 Nm @ 1600-2000 rpm.

 The capacity of the fuel tank is 80 litres and the mileage of this
mini truck is 21.9 kmpl.
 PICK UP TRUCK
• A pickup truck or pickup is a light duty truck that has
an enclosed cabin and an open cargo area with low
sides and tailgate.

• The name “pick up” was derived from its use as a

vehicle to haul and transport heavy loads. The first
popular pickup truck was the Ford Model T Runabout
with a pickup body. This vehicle was factory produced
by Henry Ford back in 1925. Over the years, as
the pickup truck evolved, it was referred to as a half-
ton truck.
1922 Ford Model T pick up
 There are 2 obvious things which every pickup trucks
India will need to have are economy and payload
capacity. 

 Pickups trucks are all about making mixing utility with

as much driver comfort as possible. Economy,
reliability, durability and power - these are the most
important features which pickup trucks India need to
have for consumers. And there are a few good products
easily available for interested buyers in the country.
TOP 5 PICK UP TRUCKS IN INDIA
 TATA XENON YODHA
 This Tata Xenon Yodha is one of the latest
offerings from the Tata stable and is slated to be
a well-built pick up truck India.
 It is available in multiple setups. Body
configuration setups include single and double
cab variants.
 This model will also be available in 4x2 and 4x4
drivetrains. A 3 L engine powers this model
producing around 85 HP and 250 Nm of torque.
 MAHINDRA BOLERO CAMPER
 A powerful engine producing around 70 HP and 195 Nm
torque is what makes this Mahindra Bolero Camper a
somewhat Americanized pickup available in India.

 One of the biggest pick up truck India, this is a popular

choice for more purposes than just as a goods truck with
some among the urban generations also opting for this model
thanks its strong off-roading specs.

 It comes with 2 wheelbase options - 2WD and 4WD and

multiple interior cabin offerings such as an AC.
 ISUZU D-MAX
 This model is available in a total of 4 different body
configurations - 3 single options along with a space
or double cab one.

 There are added flat and curved deck options for

buyers too with this Isuzu D-Max pickup. Powered
by a 2.5 L Turbo-Charged and Inter-Cooled engine
with outputs reading 135 HP and 294 Nm of torque,
this is one of the most powerful pickups available in
the market for Indian buyers.
 MAHINDRA BOLERO PICKUP
 Among the most popular models in this segment, the
Mahindra Bolero Pickup comes with numerous body options
along with 2 engine options.

 A diesel turbocharged unit provides around 65 HP and 195

Nm while a CNG unit produces around 70 HP and 181 Nm of
torque.

 Body options for this pick up truck India include camper

variants too and this model available across both 2WD and
4WD drivetrains.
 TOYOTA HIULX
 This is one of the most popular trucks in the
world and there are strong chances that the
Toyota Hilux will be available among pickup
trucks India soon.

 Toyota Hilux is available across many countries

in different formats although it is obvious that it
will bring the most fundamental base trims to
India to start things up.
 DELIVERY TRUCK
• It is the best mode of transportation and is
the cheapest of all. It is very good for short
distances travels and hauls as it provides
the best traveling experience
 PANEL VANS
 A panel van—also known as a blind van, car-
derived van (United Kingdom) or sedan
delivery (United States)—is a cargo vehicle
based upon passenger car chassis, and typically
has one row of seats with no side windows at
the rear. 

 Panel vans are smaller than panel trucks and

cargo vans, both of which are built on truck
chassis.
• A car-derived van is pretty much what it says –
basically a goods or dual-purpose vehicle that has
been adapted from a passenger car.

• Another key point is that the maximum loading

weight should not exceed two tonnes when loaded.

• These vans are good for florists, small deliveries and

self-employed tradesmen who don’t need to carry
large or weighty items. Key car-derived vans include
the Ford Fiesta and Vauxhall Corsa
 CHASSIS CAB
 A chassis cab, also called a cab chassis or half truck, is a type
of vehicle construction, often found in medium duty truck
commercial vehicles.

 Instead of supplying the customer with a factory pre-

assembled flatbed, cargo container, or other equipment, the
customer is given the vehicle with just chassis rails and a cab.

 This allows the customer to add any desired

aftermarket equipment, such as fire apparatus, ambulance, or
a recreational vehicle conversion packages, which can be
customized for the specific needs of the customer.
 BOX VAN
 A box truck—also known as a box
van, cube van, bob truck or cube truck is a
chassis cab truck with an enclosed cuboid-
shaped cargo area. 

 On most box trucks, the cabin is separate

to the cargo area, however some box trucks
have a door between the cabin and the
cargo area
 As the name suggests, this is a van with a cube-shaped, roomy load area
that’s independent to the cab. Box vans are the favourite of couriers and
delivery drivers, which appreciate the boxy shape when delivering large
parcels or bulkier loads.

 Popular box vans include the Ford Transit, Mercedes Sprinter and the
Volkswagen Crafter.

 Similar to a Luton van, the Box van’s cube-shaped loading area finishes at
the trailing edge of the cab;

 Box vans usually have access from the rear doors only and are high off
the ground because they sit on the chassis so there are no wheel arch
intrusions into the cargo area. As a result, Box vans are often fitted with
tail lifts to make loading easier.
 LUTON VAN
• A Luton body is a style of commercial
vehicle body incorporating an enclosed
box body extended over the cab.

• It takes its name from the town of Luton, in

Bedfordshire, where the Bedford
commercial vehicle plant was located.
 WALK THROUGH VAN / CHASSIS DASH

• walk-in van is the industry-standard for

delivery and service vehicles. Built on a
purpose-built chassis ready to shoulder your
load, the walk-in van has maximum versatility
and interior design capabilities, with a highly
modular cargo area and multiple side and rear
door configurations.
• .
 FLAT BED
 A flatbed truck (or flatbed lorry in British English) is a
type of truck which can be either articulated or rigid. As
the name suggests, its bodywork is just an entirely flat,
level 'bed' with no sides or roof.
 This allows for quick and easy loading of goods, and
consequently they are used to transport heavy loads
that are not delicate or vulnerable to rain, and also for
abnormal loads that require more space than is available
on a closed body.
 A flatbed has a solid bed, usually of wooden
planks. There is no roof and no fixed sides.

 To retain the load there are often low sides which

may be hinged down for loading, as a 'drop-side'
truck.

 A 'stake truck' has no sides but has steel upright

pillars, which may be removable, again used to
retain the load.
ADVANTAGES OF FLAT BED TRUCKS
 The advantage of the flat body truck is that it is an open deck truck
bed, so it can carry large luggage such as furniture, large
household appliances, building materials, and industrial equipment
without being limited to the shape.

 It is possible to handle without limiting the loading and unloading

methods, for example, handling manually and using forklifts and
cranes. It has also a great advantage that it can be parked in a
place with a low ceiling, where an aluminum van cannot be parked.

 In addition, flat body trucks are reasonably priced compared to

aluminum van trucks and wing trucks, so you can purchase them
on a cheap budget.
 DISADVANTAGES OF FLAT BED TRUCKS
 The flat body truck, which can be purchased at a reasonable price
compared to aluminum vans, has the advantage that you can load
cargoes without limiting the shape and the method to unload. But
there is a disadvantage that it is easily affected by the weather.

 Since the trunk bed of the flat body truck is exposed, the cargo is
easy to get dirty due to rain and wind, and the cargo may be
scattered or dropped when the load collapse, which is a demerit.

 Therefore, when loading cargo on a flat body, it is necessary to

pay more attention to control the cargo and driving, such as fixing
the cargo and covering it with a seat.
 DROP SIDE
 Drop side - This type of body follows the main structure
of the flat platform body with an addition of timber sides
and a tailboard, capable of being drop to assist in
loading and unloading.

 Dropside bodies consist of a series of fold-down gates

along the edge of a platform/flat trailer, allowing easy
access for forklifts while providing load security. 

 Dropsides are commonly used for trucks carrying

bricks/blocks and metal tubes such as scaffolding poles.
 TIPPER BODY
Tipper body - The prime requirement of any tipping body is that
it shall be a rigid unit capable of withstanding the rough usage to
which the type of body is subjected.
 A tipper bodies are assemblies installed to the chassis of dump
trucks or tipper trucks which are used to carry and dump
materials such as sand, soil, grid, stones etc.
 A tipper body is attached to a rigid cab chassis and is used to
carry a wide range of bulk products, such as gravel, sand and
grain.
 It is hinged at the rear which allows the front of the truck bed to
be raised and the contents set down behind / side the truck
 CLASSIFICATION
Based on type of tipping method
 hydraulic
 Electric
Based on location of tipping mechanism
 Front end tipping
 Under body tippinG
Based on direction of unloading
 Single way
 Three way
ADVANTAGES OF TIPPER TRUCK
 LARGE SCALE PROJECTS
 Tipper trucks are one of the most reliable machines on the
work site. They are versatile and carry heavy loads to and
from a site without having to make large amounts of trips.
 Tippers are are great for large scale worksites. They are
great for earthmoving projects as they can be loaded up
and the dirt can be removed from the site with ease.
 Tipper trucks are also indispensable during big clean up
operations and tidying up a site once the project has been
completed. This is because the rubbish can be loaded up
straight away and taken to the tip which makes it so much
easier than hauling multiple loads in other smaller vehicles.
 TRANSPORTING MATERIALS
Tipper truck will haul all kinds of materials and will deliver it with
efficiency.

Tipper trucks are designed to take on heavy loads and transport them to
various sites, whether that is the tip or another worksite.

Some even haul smaller machinery such as excavators so that separate

trailers don’t have to be used.

This versatility means that tipper trucks can be used in various industries
including construction, landscaping, machinery hire, waste management
and more.

They can also be used for large scale domestic projects, in which case,
you are better off using tipper truck hire if it is a once-off project.
 COST EFFECTIVENESS
 As tipper trucks can haul large amounts of material and
don’t need to make as many trips as smaller vehicles
they are more cost effective.

 This is especially the case for construction projects

where large amounts of materials need to be delivered
to the site to build homes and commercial buildings

 Tipper truck hire is also cost effective, as you don’t need

to worry about purchasing your own vehicle and
maintaining it then finding an operator.
Advantages of Truck Transportation
1. Provides Door-to-Door Services

 The first and foremost advantage of trucks transportation is that it provides door to door services to anyone
who wishes to get the goods and services available at their doorstep.
 Trucking industries are much benefitted from these services. Local transportation companies help in providing
day to day services.

2. Best Mode of Transportation

 It is the best mode of transportation and is the cheapest of all. It is very good for short distances travels and
hauls as it provides the best traveling experience.
 It is best suited for traveling within 700 km of distance.

3. Faster Delivery

 It is best suited for small cargo shipments and delivery as it will emerge out to be cheapest and best for
shipments, and this the distance will not matter at all.

4. Useful for Goods & Services

 Another advantage is that now the online booking of the trucks could be done easily and which will be useful
for goods and services to be transported.
 So, it becomes very easy for users to book whenever they want.
5. Fastest for Short Transportation Services

 It is considered to be the fastest for short transportation services as it will not take much
time for short and very less distance hauls.
 So, it can be considered as best for this type of transportation.

6. Useful for Customers

 The trucking business is very much useful for customers, and it provides services
whenever they want so these trucks can be used frequently for transporting goods and
services.

7. Easy and Flexible

 Trucking services are very much easy and flexible, and they can go in every direction and
wherever they want and wherever they want to go.
 The roads and streets are very much immune to these transportation services.
Disadvantages of Truck Transportation
1. Expensive

 It is considered a little expensive for long-distance transportation of goods and services. This
becomes a little expensive for the traveling expenses in the transit of goods and services.

2. High Cost

 Truck transportation services also are very much of high cost for the commodities which are
little low graded and are to be transported to the other city as it will be of high cost for the
driver of truck services.

3. Exceeds the Limit Prescribed

 Now, there is another most serious disadvantage of the truck transportation services, which is
that when goods are transported to another state, the wheels of the truck have to be in a
certain size which sometimes exceeds the limit prescribed, and that will be bad for the goods
contained in it.
 These are also affected by the bad weather condition and huge traffic that affects the time and
the goods contained inside the truck.
 So, we see that there are both advantages and disadvantages to truck transportation services.
 TANKER BODY
Commodities carried by tanker includes fuel,
oils, milk, water, varnish and edible oils etc. In
the case of fuel transport, to ensure safe
handling, internal baffle plates are used to cut
down the surge of liquid.
USES OF TANKER BODY:
  
Used to transport goods like,detergent,varnish,edible oil,resins,fat,sugar in
solution,liquid gaseous,fuel, oil, milk and water in bulk.
Tank truck trailers are used to transport liquids and gas in large volumes. The trailers come in
different models because of the wide variety of liquefied loads.

The internal structure also varies depending on the type of liquid or gas that the trailers are
designed to transport. The tanks may be pressure or non-pressurized and insulated or non-insulated.

Tank trailers designed to carry one load has a single compartment while those that carry multiple
loads have internal divisions in their tanks.

The distinguishing factors of tank trailers include the shape of the tank, the type of load that a trailer
carries, and the size. Other distinguishing factors include refrigeration capability, pressurization
capability, and acid resistance.

Some models are specifically designed to comply with a country’s regulations on the
transportation of liquefied loads. Hence, the structure of trailers will vary across countries.
One of the common types of tank trailer you will find on the road is the fuel tank trailer. The trailer is
used to transport gasoline, diesel oil, and benzene. It is also used to transport some types of
inflammable and plosive liquid.

 Gasoline and diesel fuels are used for standard cars and other types of vehicles. Hence, most fuel
trailers have more than one compartment. Why do fuel tank trailers have several compartments?

 The efficiency principle: A trailer with different compartment can transport different kinds of
liquid at the same time. This reduces the transportation cost and saves fuel because the trips are
reduced to one.

Transporting each liquid in a different tanker is more expensive and inefficient. Trailers with
multiple compartments can transport different grades of gasoline in one trip. A service station can
receive all the products needed in just one trip.

To ensure stability: A liquid fluctuates to all directions in the tank when the trailer is running on a slope. If the
fuel tank trailer has a large capacity, the fluctuations will cause major changes in the center of mass.

This, in turn, will cause major changes of the axle load, which affect the stability of the truck and trailer. The
instability may cause the trailer to jackknife or rollover. Using a multi-compartment model reduces the changes of
the axle load and hence keeps the trailer stable.
 MATERIAL USED FOR FUEL TANKER
In this section, we will discuss different materials that are used to make fuel tank trailers. Trailer
manufacturers use carbon steel or stainless steel and aluminum allow to make fuel tank trailers.

Each of these materials has its advantages and disadvantages. Let us now look at the pros and
cons of each material.
 CARBON STEEL AND STAINLESS STEEL
The main advantages of using carbon and stainless on trailers include:

 Steel has high strength and is not damaged easily

 The price of steel is competitive and hence steel is popular in developing countries

 Carbon steel is easy to weld

 Steel is less prone to stress crack, which is common with aluminum

 The stainless steel is resistant to rust, can used to transport edibles

The main disadvantages of using carbon steel are:

 Carbon steel requires galvanizing or painting on the surface to prevent rusting

 It has a higher density than aluminum alloy

 ALUMINUM ALLOY
The advantages of using aluminum alloy on tank trailers include:

It is lighter in weight than steel

Aluminum tank trailer can carry more liquid load

The trailers are safer and more secure

The material is resistant to rust and hence it does not pollute the liquid during transportation

Some of the disadvantages of aluminum allow include:

The strength of aluminum is almost half the strength of steel

It is highly prone to stress cracking

Welding aluminum plates is cumbersome

It is more expensive than steel

 TANK BODY, HEAD AND CYLINDER
Tank trailers have different shapes include circle, ellipse, and rectangular shapes.
Their height of gravity ratio is 1:0.79:0.65. Large fuel tankers have an ellipse and
round rectangular shape because of the need for stability.
The low center of gravity in this shape keeps the trailer stable. High pressure
tanks, on the other hand, are built in the circle shape.
The body of a tank trailer consists of the heads and cylinder. The cylinder is
manufactured by coiling and welding steel plates. The end shell is formed by
the spinning stamping process, it is unibody structure.
The process involves continuous partial stamping at a specific temperature.
For the cylinder and heads to be accurate after welding, their roundness
tolerance should be less than 3mm.
Oil Baffle Plate
To reduce the fluctuations of the liquid in the tank, all the rooms in the tank
have baffle plates. A longitudinal baffle plate is placed along the axis in the tank
to reduce transverse fluctuations of the liquid in the tank.
A transverse baffle plate is placed along the cross section to alleviate the axial
fluctuation of the liquid in the tank.
Transverse baffle plates have a manhole on each plate, which generally is not
less than 550mm in diameter. The dimensions are necessary for the ease of
maintenance of the plates.
To improve the effect of the transverse baffle plate, two or more manholes are
places of the baffle plates. The manholes should be staggered in the same
compartment.
•
.
 Manhole Cover, Breather Valve, and Spill-proof
sensor

•The manhole cover is simply the cover on the trailer’s manhole as illustrated in the picture below. The cover has
important components that you should know about, which keep the tank safe.
 AIR RELEASE VALVE
One of the important components of the manhole cover is the respiration valve, which is also known as a relief
valve. The function of the valve is to adjust the pressure inside tank automatically.

This helps to keep the pressure within a certain range. The relief valve protects the tank and reduces the
volatilization loss of volatile oil.

The body of the respiratory valve is made of stainless steel with nickel cadmium. All other parts are made of
stainless acid-resistant steel to prevent rust.

A small and medium tank has one breather valve for all the compartments. A large tank, on the other hand, has
breathing valves for each compartment.
 SPILL PROOF SENSOR
The spill-proof sensor is the alarm installed on the manhole cover. The sensor produces a sound or noise whenever
the height of the liquid inside the tank changes quickly.

When the liquid reaches the right height, the whistle or alarm stops. The sensor in this case plays the role of a filling
up alarm. In addition, the whistle stops with the liquid insider the tank discharge empty.

OIL VAPOUR RECOVERY VALVE

The oil gas from volatile can be recovered to the oil tank, which prevents leakage of the oil gas. Other oil gas
recovery devices are used to condense and reuse the oil gas.
 CLASSIFICATION
1.According to the type of liquid carrying:
a. water tank body
b. Fuel tank body
c. Chemical liquids tank body

2.According to the shape of the tanker body:

a. Circular (round) cross section
b. Elliptical cross section
 
3.According to bulkheads:
a. Baffled tanks
b. Un baffled tanks (smooth bore tanks)
 WATER TANKER
 It is mainly composed of the truck chassis, water inlet,outlet system and the water tank
body.
 It is a cylindrical, horizontal tank mounted onto the truck chassis
 A water tank truck is mostly used for storing water and transporting the same to some
places where there is an urgent need for water.
 A sprinkler water tank truck is used for making the city environment clean and beautiful
by cleaning and watering the streets, plants, and grass.
 Water tank trucks have different volume capacity.
 The rear sprinkler, and side spraying of a water tank body are made possible with the
tank's fire hose coupling, working platform, and self-discharge valve.
 A rotatable water cannon is installed on the working platform to create various spraying
functions and adjustments to create mist, drizzle, moderate rain, or heavy rain
depending on the different purposes and environment.
 It is made of various materials such as stainless steel,carbon steel, aluminum, and
fiberglass-reinforced plastic.
 The rigid steel body is further sprayed with superior quality special paint to allow it to be
more solid and safe