Optical Fiber Communications

Introduction & Basics

The basic optical fiber system

Optical Optical
fiber amplifier

Optical Modulator
Optical Modulator
source
source

Electronics.
Electronics.
Optical
Optical Electronics.
Electronics.
receiver
receiver
 The basic optical fiber system
• Source – produces the optical signal
• Modulator – turns electronic data into an optical signal
• Optical fiber – carries the optical signal over long distances.
• Optical amplifier – boosts the signal as it travels
• Optical receiver – turns the optical signal back to an electronic
data signal
 What is light?
• In one description light is a form of electromagnetic
wave (EM) radiation very similar to radio waves the
difference being the frequency (f) of the radiation.
These are basically sine (or cosine) waves that move
away (propagate) from a source.
• It can also be expressed in terms of a parameter called
wavelength (). This actually describes what it looks
like with respect to distance.
• If the wave propagates at a speed (c) and has a
frequency f then the wavelength is given by  = c/f
Electromagnetic waves -frequency

Set the distance to a fixed value and look at the

wave - movie

Time

T - period
 Electromagnetic waves -wavelength

Set the time to a fixed value and look at the wave -

photograph

Light
Source
Distance


 Basics of quantum physics
• A picture of lights sources can be built up by
considering the concept of energy levels
within an atomic system.
• This describes an atomic system in terms of
energy levels where electrons reside.
• Here a two level system is shown level E1 and
level E2 where E2>E1.
Spontaneous emission
E2

Input energy

E1

Energy input to system.

E2

Photon output

E1

Release of energy as spontaneous emission.

 Stimulated emission

E2

Coherent light output

Input photon

E1
 Spontaneous vs. Stimulated
Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission
• Photon emission is entirely • Photon emission is not
random. random.
• Each photon emitted has • Each photon emitted has
different energy hf and identical energy, phase and
different polarization. polarization.
• Hence, large number of • Hence, produced radiation
electron transitions is highly coherent.
produces incoherent • Used in Laser.
radiation.
• Used in LED.
Boltzmann Distribution
•E2  > E1
E2 – Excited State
N1 + N2 = N
N2 atoms

∆E = E2 – E1 = hf
E1 – Ground State
N1 atoms

k = Boltzmann Constant =
T = thermodynamic temperature of the group
of atoms (in K)
 Example
• T = 300 K •  
• f = 5 x 1014 Hz
• h = 4.135 x 10-15 eV.s
• k = 8.617 x 10-5 eVK-1

• ∆E = hf = 2.068 eV • N2 <<< N1
• kT = 0.026 eV
 Band Gap
Free Electron Energy

Unfilled Bands

Conduction Band
Band Gap

Valence Band

Filled Bands

Energy
 Population Inversion
• When the system is in thermal equilibrium, the
lower energy state is more populated than
higher energy state.
• Population inversion is having more members in
the higher energy state than the lower energy
state.
• So, in order to achieve Population Inversion, we
need to push the system into a non-equilibrated
state.
 Population Inversion Cont.
E2 – Excited State
• To achieve population
inversion atoms should
be excited to the upper
Lasing
Pumping energy level using an
external energy source.
E1 – Ground State • This is called ‘Pumping’
• However, two level
systems do not provide
suitable population
inversion.
 Population Inversion Cont.
Three Level System Four Level System

E3

E2 E2
Rapid
Decay
E1 Lasing

Lasing E1
Pumping

E0 E0

Ruby (Crystal) Laser He-Ne (gas) Laser

 Semiconductor Laser Materials
• An optical source can be formed from a semiconductor P-N
junction or a diode.
• Here population inversion is created by the injection of current
into a pn junction.
• The p and n junction form energy levels, with a gap between them
Eg (the bandgap). The continual flow of current causes these levels
to be dynamically populated with electrons.
• In an electronic pn junction this is the current flow.
• However if an optical device is needed then these populated
electrons should return to the lower level via photon emission
rather than participate in current flow. If this happens then
photons may be released.
 Semiconductor Laser Materials
• If the material is efficient at releasing photons then it is an
electroluminescent material, recombination of many electrons across the
bandgap occurs, with the release of a photon of energy (Eg)and frequency
(f) where
E g = hf
•  

• Now it is quite possible that some electron transitions may not produce a
photon and may release the energy in another form, called a phonon.
Non radiative recombination occurs as a result of energy released possibly
as lattice vibrations in the form of heat.
• Many optical sources are built from semiconductor p-n junctions.
LED - Optical power Vs current.

These use spontaneous emission

Power

Current.
 Laser - Optical gain.
• Now in a material with population inversion it
is common to speak of the optical power gain.
• It describes how the optical signal increases in
power i.e. due to stimulated emission, as it
propagates through a material with
population inversion.
• Optical gain is possible in a device with
population inversion.
Interaction Of Photons And Carriers In
Semiconductor Laser

I Current

n Population
inversion.

Spontaneous Stimulated
emission. emission.

S Photons - optical
power

Loss Output
power
 Laser oscillation
• To achieve laser oscillation the semiconductor p-n
junction is placed between end reflectors called
facets and current is then supplied.
• The structure is attributed to scientists who
developed this and is often called a Fabry Perot
etalon.
• Basically it is a cavity with end mirrors that allows the
signal to repeatedly reflect.
 Typical laser cavity

Output
Amplifying medium

Mirror. Mirror.
 Light Amplification in Laser
• If a photon colliding with an atom causes
stimulated emission, it will emit two photons.
• If those photons release two more… and
continuation of this process releases more and
more photons causing an avalanche
multiplication… It is light amplification.
• To do that a suitable medium should be
present to amplify the emission of photons.
 Laser – Optical power Vs current.

Spontaneous
Emission Region
Power Stimulated
. Emission Region

Current.
 The lineshape – range of wavelengths
actually emitted by a source
• To get a stable output, optical gain should be
matched by the losses incurred in the
amplifying medium.
• Major losses result from
– Scattering (in medium, at mirrors)
– Absorption
– Diffraction at mirrors
 The lineshape – range of wavelengths
actually emitted by a source
• Oscillations occur in the laser cavity over a
small range of frequencies, where the cavity
gain is sufficient to overcome the loss.
• Hence, the device is not perfectly
monochromatic but emits over a narrow
spectral band.
The lineshape – range of wavelengths
actually emitted by a source

Relative Amplification

 Frequency
 Lineshape and modes of lasers.
If oscillation builds up in a laser device laser action may take place.
The propagating waves in the laser will also establish standing waves
between the mirrors and these standing waves only exist at certain
wavelengths within the laser such that that the expression 2LN/ is
equal to a positive integer k. In relation to the length of the cavity L
the mode wavelengths are:
 = 2LN/k  
where k is a positive integer.
 is the wavelength of the mode in a vaccum
N the medium (the material the laser is made from) refractive index
L the distance between the mirrors.
Laser modes – the discrete wavelengths
emitted by a laser.
Gain of modes/arb. units



GT

p Modes
 Laser modes
Adjacent modes are given by:
  2 LN 2 LN
k and k  1
  2
 
the mode spacing is given by: 2 LN
 
 
Thus a number of modes can exist within a laser cavity and it will be the
modes that have sufficient gain to over come the losses, which are emitted.