Quantum Theory

FYI
1/3 of exams graded,
and average is about
71%.

Reading:
Ch13.1-13.5
No HW this week !
 What is Quantum Theory?
Quantum theory is a theory needed to describe physics on a
microscopic scale, such as on the scale of atoms, molecules,
electrons, protons, etc.

Classical theories:
Newton – Mechanical motion of objects (F = ma)
Maxwell – Light treated as a wave

NEITHER OF THESE THEORIES QUITE WORK FOR

ATOMS, MOLECULES, ETC.
Quantum (from Merriam-Webster)
Any of the very small increments or parcels into which
many forms of energy are subdivided.

Light is a form of energy is a quantum of EM energy

The Wave – Particle Duality

OR
 Light Waves
Untilabout
Until about1900,
1900,the
theclassical
classicalwave
wavetheory
theoryof
oflight
lightdescribed
described
mostobserved
most observedphenomenon.
phenomenon.

Light waves:

Characterized by:

 Amplitude (A)
 Frequency ()
 Wavelength ()

Energy of wave  A2
 And then there was a problem…

In the early 20th century, several effects were observed which

could not be understood using the wave theory of light.

Two of the more influential observations were:

1) The Photo-Electric Effect

2) The Compton Effect

I will describe each of these today…

 Photoelectric Effect (I)
“Classical” Method What if we try this ?
Increase energy by Vary wavelength, fixed amplitude
increasing amplitude
electrons electrons
emitted ? emitted ?
No
No
No Yes, with
low KE
No
Yes, with
No high KE

No electrons were emitted until the frequency of the light exceeded

a critical frequency, at which point electrons were emitted from
the surface! (Recall: small   large )
 Photoelectric Effect (II)
 Electrons are attracted to the (positively charged) nucleus by the
electrical force

 In metals, the outermost electrons are not tightly bound, and can
be easily “liberated” from the shackles of its atom.

 It just takes sufficient energy…

Classically, we increase the energy
of an EM wave by increasing the
intensity (e.g. brightness)

Energy  A2

Butthis
But thisdoesn’t
doesn’twork
work??
??
 PhotoElectric Effect (III)

An
 Analternate
alternateview
viewisisthat
thatlight
lightisisacting
actinglike
likeaaparticle
particle

The
Thelight
lightparticle
particlemust
musthave
havesufficient
sufficientenergy
energyto
to“free”
“free”the
the
electronfrom
electron fromthe
theatom.
atom.

Increasing
Increasingthe
theAmplitude
Amplitudeisissimply
simplyincreasing
increasingthe
thenumber
number
oflight
of lightparticles,
particles,but
butits
itsNOT
NOTincreasing
increasingthe
theenergy
energyof
ofeach
eachone!
one!
Increasing
 IncreasingthetheAmplitude
Amplitudedoes
doesdiddly-squat!
diddly-squat!

However,
However,ififthe
theenergy
energyofofthese
these“light
“lightparticle”
particle”isisrelated
relatedtototheir
their
frequency,this
frequency, thiswould
wouldexplain
explainwhy
whyhigher
higherfrequency
frequencylight
lightcan
can
knockthe
knock theelectrons
electronsout
outof
oftheir
theiratoms,
atoms,but
butlow
lowfrequency
frequencylightlightcannot…
cannot…
 Photo-Electric Effect (IV)
InInthis
this“quantum-mechanical”
“quantum-mechanical”picture,
picture,the
theenergy
energyof
ofthe
the
lightparticle
light particle(photon)
(photon)must
mustovercome
overcomethe
thebinding
bindingenergy
energyof
ofthe
the
electronto
electron tothe
thenucleus.
nucleus.

IfIfthe
theenergy
energyofofthe
thephoton
photonexceeds
exceedsthethebinding
bindingenergy,
energy,the
the
electronisisemitted
electron emittedwith
withaaKE
KE==EEphoton––EEbinding..
photon binding

The
Theenergy
energyofofthe
thephoton
photonisisgivengivenby
byE=hwhere
E=hwherethe
the
constanthh==6.6x10
constant 6.6x10-34
-34
[J[Js]s]isisPlanck’s
Planck’sconstant.
constant.

“Light particle”

Before Collision After Collision

 Photons
 Quantum theory describes light as
a particle called a photon

 According to quantum theory, a

photon has an energy given by

E = h = hc/ h = 6.6x10-34 [J s] Planck’s constant,

after the scientist Max Planck.

 The energy of the light is proportional to the frequency (inversely

proportional to the wavelength) ! The higher the frequency (lower
wavelength) the higher the energy of the photon.

 10 photons have an energy equal to ten times a single photon.

 Quantum theory describes experiments to astonishing precision,

whereas the classical wave description cannot.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Shortestwavelengths
Shortest wavelengths
(Mostenergetic
(Most energeticphotons)
photons)

EE == hh == hc/
hc/

h = 6.6x10-34 [J*sec]
(Planck’s constant)

Longestwavelengths
Longest wavelengths
(Leastenergetic
(Least energeticphotons)
photons)
 Momentum
In physics, there’s another quantity which we hold just as
sacred as energy, and this is momentum.

For an object with mass, momentum is given by:

 
p  mv
 
p  mv
The units are: [kg] [m/s] == [kg m/s]

Unlike energy, which is a scalar, momentum is a vector. That is

it has both magnitude & direction. The direction is along the
direction of the velocity vector.

The reason it is important in physics, is, because like Energy:

TOTAL MOMENTUM IS ALWAYS CONSERVED
 Do photons carry momentum ?
DeBroglie’s proposed that the a photon not only carries energy,
but also carries momentum.

But, p = mv, and photon’s have m=0, so how can it be that the
momentum is not zero??
p  h/

DeBroglie postulated that photons carry momentum, and their

momentum is:
p  E /c
If we substitute: E = hc/ into this equation, we get:
Momentum carried by a photon
p  h/ with wavelength 
 DeBroglie’s Relation
DeBroglie
relation

p=h/ Photons carry momentum !!! =h/p

E = hc /  Photons also carry energy !!!

Both energy & momentum are inversely proportional to the

wavelength !!!
 The highest energy photons are those which have
small wavelength (that’s why gamma rays are so dangerous)
 The Compton Effect
In 1924, A. H. Compton performed an experiment
where X-rays impinged on matter, and he measured
the scattered radiation.
Louis de Broglie
Incident X-ray
wavelength M
A
1 T Scattered X-ray
T
E
wavelength  2 > 1
R 2
e

Electron comes flying out

Problem: According to the wave picture of light, the incident X-ray

should give up some of its energy to the electron, and emerge with a
lower energy (i.e., the amplitude is lower), but should have .
It was found that the scattered X-ray did not have the same wavelength ?
 Quantum Picture to the Rescue
Electron ScatteredX-ray
Scattered X-ray
IncidentX-ray
Incident X-ray initially at EE22==hc
hc2
2
rest (almost)
hc//1
EE11==hc 1

e
2 > 1
e

EEee

Comptonfound
Compton foundthat
thatififyou
youtreat
treatthe
thephotons
photonsas
asififthey
theywere
wereparticles
particles
ofzero
of zeromass,
mass, with
withenergy
energy E=hc/
E=hc/ andand momentum
momentum p=h/ p=h/

The
 Thecollision
collisionbehaves
behavesjust
justas
asififititwere
were22billiard
billiardballs
ballscolliding
colliding!!

Photonbehaves
Photon behaveslike
likeaaparticle
particlewith
withenergy
energy&
&momentum
momentumas
asgiven
givenabove!
above!
 Summary of Photons
Photons
 Photonscan
canbe
betreated
treatedas
as“packets
“packetsof
of
light”which
light” whichbehave
behaveas
asaaparticle.
particle.

To
Todescribe
describeinteractions
interactionsofoflight
lightwith
withmatter,
matter,one
onegenerally
generallyhas
hasto
to
appealto
appeal tothe
theparticle
particle (quantum)
(quantum)description
descriptionof
oflight.
light.

AAsingle
 singlephoton
photonhas
hasan
anenergy
energygiven
givenby
by
EE==hc/,
hc/,
where
where
hh==Planck’s
Planck’sconstant
constant==6.6x10
6.6x10-34-34[J[Js]s] and,
and,
cc==speed
speedof
oflight
light ==3x10
3x1088[m/s]
[m/s]
 ==wavelength
wavelengthof ofthe
thelight
light(in
(in[m])
[m])

Photons
Photonsalso
alsocarry
carrymomentum.
momentum.The
Themomentum
momentumisisrelated
relatedto
tothe
the
energyby:
energy by: pp==EE//cc==h/
h/
 So is light a
wave or a
particle ?

On macroscopic scales, we can treat a large number of photons

as a wave.

When dealing with subatomic phenomenon, we are often dealing

with a single photon, or a few. In this case, you cannot use
the wave description of light. It doesn’t work !