Mathematical

Language and
Symbols
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Learning Outline:

Lesson 1: The Language and Grammar of

Mathematics
Lesson 2. The Language of Sets
Lesson 3: The Language of Logic

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 Is mathematics really a language just like English,
French, Chinese, or Japanese ?

Based on the definition that describes a language such as : a

vocabulary of symbols or words; a grammar consisting of rules on the
use of these symbols, ;and range of meanings that can be
communicated with these symbols.
All of these components are found in mathematics, so it qualifies as a
language.
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 Mathematics and English as Languages

Mathematics and English are both languages that if you excel

to both, you have a bigger chance of being ahead in a world full
of competition.
 The figure below will give you an overview on their
similarities and differences.
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Mathematics and English as Languages

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 Mathematics and English as Languages

 Even though the words “noun”, “verb”, or pronoun” are not used in mathematics, the
similarities with the English language can be observed :
 Nouns could be constants such as numbers or expression with numbers.
 A verb could be equal sign or inequality symbols.
 Pronouns could be variables .
 Sentences could be formed by putting together these parts.

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 The Language and Grammar of
Mathematics
 Mathematics has a language features unparalleled in other languages, like
presentation for example “ “ for any real number or any numerical expression. In
addition, the language of Mathematics is packed with terms and symbols, which
normally used in everyday conversation.
  
 Mathematics has grammar too, but it is the mathematical logic that determines
whether the statements are true or not true, valid or not valid. Therefore, we need
to view Mathematics as a language and must learn it in a way a language is
learned.
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 Mathematical Expression and Sentences

A sentence must contain a complete thought. In the English language

an ordinary sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.
 Similarly, a mathematical sentence must state a complete thought.
While an expression is a name given to a mathematical object of
interest.

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Below are example of mathematical sentences or
statement.
Combined Mathematical
English Translations
Sentences
-- The
The sum
sum ofof six
six and
and two
two all
all over
over four
four is
is two.
two.
-- The
The ratio
ratio of
of six
six plus
plus two,
two, and
and four
four is
is equal
equal toto two.
two.
-- Two
Two is
is the
the quotient
quotient when
when the
the sum
sum of
of six
six and
and two
two is
is divided
divided
by
by four.
four.
-- Twice
Twice the
the difference
difference of
of twelve
twelve and
and four
four is
is sixteen.
sixteen.
-- The
The product
product ofof 2
2 and
and twelve
twelve less
less four
four is
is sixteen
sixteen

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What if we have this kind of statements?

1. There exist any numbers such that the sum of their
squares equals the square of their sum.
2. There exist a real number whose square is smaller
than the number itself.

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The Language of Sets

The concept of sets was formalized by George Cantor, a German

mathematician (1845-1918). He defined set as a collection of
definite distinguished objects called elements.
Examples: Set of Numbers , Set of days in a week, set of students,
etc.

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Set Notation

 It is important to note that in Mathematics , there are certain conventions in the ways sets are represented,
written, and interpreted .The following examples will illustrate these conventions.
 Roster method is also called the listing method where the elements are listed . Commas are used between
 each element and a pair of braces are used to enclose the list elements. Ex: Set of vowels in the alphabet.
 
 Set-builder method . This notation is used whenever it is convenient or impossible to list all the elements of a
set; it merely describes the characterizing property of its elements in terms of symbols. Example: The set
whose elements are all integers may be named and can be written as . This is read as “Set is the set of all
values of such that is an integer”.

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Use The Roster Method to
Represent a Set
The set of natural numbers less than 5.

  
The solution set of

The set of negative integers greater than

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Use The Set-builder Method to
Represent a Set
 a. Set is the set of integers greater than negative five but less than four .

  b.

Set is the set of real numbers greater than or equal to zero.

 c. Set is the set of even numbers greater than or equal to four but less than or equal to
twenty.

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More Concepts of Sets
 Universal Set is the totality of all points or element under study.
Ex: Set of Real Number
 Finite Set is a set whose elements are countable. Examples are :
Ex: .
  
Ex Set is the set of integers greater than zero but less than five.
 Unit Set is a finite set that has only one element. Examples are:
Ex:
Ex Set D is the set consisting of the number that is even and prime.

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More Concepts of Sets

 Infinite Set is a set where the number of elements is unlimited or not countable. Examples :
Ex: }
Ex: Set is the set of positive integers
  

 Empty or null set is a set that has no elements usually denoted by { } or

Ex: Set H is the set of months that start with the letter Z.

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More Concepts of Sets

Cardinality or cardinal number of a set is the number of elements

in it and usually written as n(A) to denoted the cardinality of set A.
  Take note that in finding for the cardinality of a set elements that are

listed more than once are counted only once. For example the set
has a cardinality of 4 and is denoted as

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More Concepts of Sets
 Equivalent Sets are sets that have the same number of elements. In other words, they have the same a
cardinality.
For example , Let A={1,2,3,4,5} ; B={ a, b ,c, d }; C={ 2, 4} ; D={ -5 , 5 }
Set and are equivalent sets denoted by since they have same cardinality;
However
   , Set and Set are not equivalent because ,

 Equal sets are sets that have exactly the same elements. Examples are :
If and , then Sets and are equal denoted by .
If and , then .

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More Concepts of Sets

 The symbol is used to indicate that an element belongs to a set ;while is used
to indicate that an element does not belong to a set. Example are :
  
 Given , we say that is an element of ” or in symbols, .
 Given , we say that “ is not an element of Set or in symbols ,

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More Concepts of Sets

 The symbol is used to indicate that set is a proper subset of another set. By proper subset ,
in given two sets and , every element of Set is also an element of Set , but not all elements
of Set are in Set . Such a relation between sets is denoted by and is read as “ is a proper
 subset
  of .” . It is important to note that the set on the right of is the one with more elements
.
 On the other hand , the symbol is used to indicate that a set is not a subset of another
set ; meaning not all elements of the first set are also element of the second set.

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More Concepts of Sets

 The symbol is used to indicate that equal sets are subset of one another .
Suppose we are given two sets , and . Since Sets and are equal sets, we say
  
that is a subset of , and conversely, is a subset of . In set notation , we state
 and .

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More Concepts of Sets

Sets that have common elements are called joint sets ;

while those that do not have common elements are
called disjoint sets.

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Set Operation

 The union of two sets nd is the set composed of elements that are in Set or Set or both
sets , and is denoted by which read as union .
 Example: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} {0, 3, 6, 9,} {2, 4, 6, 8}. Find
  
1.
2.
3.

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Set Operation

 The intersection of two sets nd is the set composed of elements that are in Set
Set , and is denoted by which read as intersection .
 Example: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} {0, 3, 6, 9,} {2, 4, 6, 8}. Find
  
1.
2.
3.

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Set Operation

 The difference of two sets nd is the set of elements in set , but its common
elements with Set of is taken out and is denoted by which is read as ” minus
 Example: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} {0, 3, 6, 9,} {2, 4, 6, 8}. Find
  
1.
2.
3.

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Set Operation

The complement of a Set relative to a universal set is the set of

elements in that are not in and is denoted by (read as” prime”).
The universal set is the totality of all elements that are included
  
under a defined condition. can be understood as the set that is
composed of all elements of with its common elements with taken
out , or in symbols , = .

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Set Operation
Example:
If

  

Find :
1.
2.
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Set Operation

The of two sets and is the set of all possible pairs of elements and
is denoted by (read as “the Cartesian product of and ”). Each pair
  of elements is called an ordered pair where the first element is an

element of the first set ; that is , ; the second element is an element of

the second set ; that is .

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Set Operation

Example:
If and , Find:
 


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Venn Diagram

The Venn Diagram, named after John Venn (English logician,

1834-1923), is a geometric representation of sets, set relation,
and operations. It is usually utilizes overlapping or non-
overlapping circles drawn rectangle.

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Venn Diagram

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Example using Venn Diagram

Use the Figure 2 to answer each of the

following.
  a. Which regions represent

 b. Which regions represent
 c. Which regions represent

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Example using Venn Diagram
A movie company is making plans for future movies it wishes to produce. The company has
done a random survey of 1000 people. The results of the survey, 695 people like action
adventures, 340 people like comedies and 180 people like both action adventures and comedies.
Of the people surveyed, how many people
 a. like action adventures but not comedies?
 b. like comedies but not action adventures?
 c. do not like either of these types of movies?

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Thank you for listening. .

Prepare for Quiz #1

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 The Language of
Logic

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What is logic?

 The term logic refers to the science that studies the principle of correct reasoning.
 Logic requires the act of reasoning to form thoughts and opinions, as well as classification
and judgements.
 The foundation of logical argument is its proposition or statement. The proposition is
either accurate (true) or not accurate (false) but not both true and false .
 The argument is then built on premises. The premises are the propositions used to build the
argument.

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Simple and Compound Statements

 A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea.

 A compound statement is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.
 Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or,
if . . . then, and if and only if creates a compound statement.

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 Mathematical
Analysis of Logic
Statement Connective Symbolic form Type of statement
 George Boole (the one who published
The Mathematical Analysis of Logic in not not negation
1848).
and and conjunction
  He used symbols such as p, q, r, and s


to represent simple statements. or or disjunction

 And symbols and to represent If , then If … then conditional

connectives. if and only if if and only if biconditional

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Example!

Write the following compound statements in symbolic

Consider the following simple statements. form.
 p: Today is Friday.  a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
 q: It is raining.  b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
 r: I am going to a movie.  c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going
to a movie.
 s: I am not going to the basketball
 d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the
game. basketball game.

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Example!
 
Consider the following statements. Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
 p: The game will be played in  a.
Atlanta.
 q: The game will be shown on
 b.
CBS.
 r: The game will not be shown on
ESPN.  c.
 s: The Dodgers are favored to win.

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 Truth Value and Truth Table

The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F).
The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its
simple statements and its connectives.
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement
for all possible truth values of its simple statements.

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 Truth table for Negation

 In symbolic logic, the tilde symbol is used to denote the

negation of a statement.
 If a statement p is true, its negation p is false, and if a T F
 statement
  p is false, its negation p is true.
 The negation of the negation of a statement is the F T
original statement.
 Thus (p) can be replaced by p in any statement.

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 Truth table for Conjunction

 This is a statement which is the result of

combining two other statements with the T T T

connective
 
word “and”, it is denoted by the
T F F
symbol .
 The conjunction of two statements is true only if F T F
both statements are true, otherwise it is false. F F F

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 Truth table for Disjunction

 This is a statement which is the result of

combining two other statements with the T T T
connective word “or”, it is denoted by the
   T F T
symbol .
 The disjunction of two statements is only if both F T T
statements are false, otherwise it is true. F F F

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 Truth table for Conditional
 In any conditional statement represented by “if ,
then ” or by “If p, q,” denoted by the p
statement is called antecedent and the q T T T
  statement is called consequent.
T F F
 The conditional statement is true in all cases, F T T
except when the antecedent is true and the
consequent is false. F F T

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 Truth table for Biconditional

Biconditional statement or equivalence is

the result of combining two propositions T T T
  in the form…if and only if… denoted by .
T F F
The equivalence is true if both F T F
propositions are true or both false. F F T

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SUMMARY

T T T T T T

T F F T F F

F T F T T F

F F F F T T

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 Truth Table
Given
 We consider methods of constructing truth tables for a Statement
statement that involves a combination of conjunctions,
disjunctions, and/or negations.
T T  
 If the given statement involves only two simple T F  
statements, then start with a table with four rows (see F T  
the table below ), called the standard truth table form
F F  

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 Example!

 a. Construct a table for

  
 b. Use the truth table from part a
to determine the truth value of ,
given that p is true and q is false.

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 Example!
t
 a. Construct a truth table for

   b. Use the truth table that you


constructed in part a to determine
the truth value of given that p is
true and q is false.

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 Example!

 a. Construct a truth table for

 b. Use the truth table from part a
  to determine the truth value of

given that p is true, q is true, and r

is false.

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 REASONING AND
PROBLEM SOLVING

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LEARNING OUTLINE:

Lesson 1. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

 Lesson 2: Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy
 Lesson 3. Recreational Problems using Mathematics

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Introduction!

Mathematics has always been seen as a tool for problem solving.

 Math by nature is based on logical and valid reasoning so that it
used for decision – making.
A good decision maker is one who can find resolution using his/ her
reasoning ability and mathematical strategy.

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 INDUCTIVE REASONING
 The type of reasoning that uses specific examples to reach a general conclusion is called
inductive reasoning . The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is called
conjecture which may or may not be correct.
 Example: The chair in the living room is red . The chair in the dining room is red. The chair
in the bedroom is red. Therefore, all chairs in the house are red.
 Even when you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list according to
some pattern you have observed, you are also using inductive reasoning.

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 Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture
out of the following procedure.
 1. Pick a number.
 2. Multiply the number by 8,
 3. Add 6 to the product
 4. Divide the sum by 2
 5. And subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the
original number.
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COUNTER EXAMPLE!
 

 A statement is a true  Find a counterexample. Verify that each of the

statement provided that it is following statements is a false statement by
true in all cases. If you can find finding counterexample. For all number :
one case For which a statement  |x| > 0
is not true, called a
counterexample, then the
statement is a false statement. 

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 DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive
reasoning is distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the
process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and
procedures .

EX: All dogs have good sense of smell. Blackeye is a dog. Therefore,
Blackeye has a good sense of smell.
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Use deductive reasoning to show that the following
procedure produces a number that is three times the
original number.
 Procedure:
1. Pick a number.
2. Multiply the number by 6,
3. add 10 to the product,
4. divide the sum by 2,
5.and subtract 5.

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LOGIC PUZZLES

Logic puzzles can be Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different
occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues,
solved by using determine the occupation of each neighbor.
deductive reasoning  1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the
and a chart that enables dentist.
us to display the given  2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.

information in a visual  3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
 4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
manner
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LOGIC PUZZLES

1. Maria gets home from work after the   Editor Banker Chef Dentist
banker but before the dentist.
Sean        
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home
from work, is not the editor. Maria        
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work
at the same time. Sarah        
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
Brian        

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 Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy
 One of the foremost recent mathematicians to
make a study of problem solving was
George Polya (1887–1985). He was born in
Hungary and moved to the United States in
1940.In his book How to Solve It”, George
Polya enumerates the four steps of problem –
solving.

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 Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy
4 Steps in Problem Solving by G. Polya
1. Understand the problem.
 2. Devise a plan.
 3. Carry out the plan.
 4. Review the solution.

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 1. Understand the Problem

 This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must have a clear
understanding of the problem. To help you focus on understanding the problem,
consider the following questions.
 ■ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
 ■ Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
 ■ Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the problem?
 ■ Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
 ■ What is the goal?

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 2. Devise a Plan

Successful problem solvers use a variety of  ■ Make a table or a chart.

techniques when they attempt to solve a problem.  ■ Work backwards.
Here are some frequently used procedures.
 ■ Try to solve a similar but simpler
 ■ Make a list of the known information.
problem.
 ■ Make a list of information that is needed.
 ■ Look for a pattern.
 ■ Draw a diagram.
 ■ Perform an experiment.
 ■ Write an equation. If necessary, define what
 ■ Guess at a solution and then check your
each variable represents.
result.

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 3. Carry Out the Plan

Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.

 ■ Work carefully.
 ■ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
 ■ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and
that you may have to devise another plan or modify your
existing plan.

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 4. Review the Solution

Once you have found a solution, check the solution.

 ■ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the
problem.
 ■ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
 ■ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the
solution that could apply to other problems.

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 Apply Polya’s Strategy
Example #1. A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In
how many different orders could they have two wins and two losses in
four games?

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 Apply Polya’s Strategy
Example #2. The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is
4590. None of the teens are the same age. What are the ages of the
teenagers?

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 Apply Polya’s Strategy
Example #3. A hat and a jacket together cost $100. The jacket costs
$90 more than the hat. What are the cost of the hat and the cost of the
jacket?

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 Apply Polya’s Strategy

 Example # 4. Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the

  
decimal point in the decimal representation .

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 Apply Polya’s Strategy
Example # 5. Dave, Nora, Tony, and Andrea are members of the same
family. Dave is 2 years older than Andrea, who is 21 years older than
Tony. Tony is 4 years older than Nora, who is 7 years old. How old
are Dave, Tony, and Andrea?

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Recreational Problems Using Mathematics

Mathematics can also be used to solve some

recreational activities such as :
Soduko
KenKen Puzzle

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SODUKO

 Sudoku Puzzle -is a logic-based,

combinatorial number-placement puzzle.
The objective is to fill a 9×9 grid with
digits so that each column, each row, and
each of the nine 3×3 subgrids that
compose the grid contains all of the digits
from 1 to 9 .

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KENKEN PUZZLE

KenKen® is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by

the Japanese mathematics
teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “ken” has
“knowledge” and “awareness” as synonyms. Hence, KenKen
translates as knowledge squared, or awareness squared.

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KENKEN PUZZLE
 Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle
 For a 3 by 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with one of the
numbers 1, 2, or 3.
 For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1,
2, 3, or 4.
 For a n by n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1,
2, 3, ... , n.
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KENKEN PUZZLE

Grids range in size from a 3 by 3 up to a 9 by 9.

 • Do not repeat a number in any row or column.
 • The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must combine (in
some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner of the cage using the
mathematical operation indicated.
 • Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number.
 • A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row or column.

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KENKEN PUZZLE (Example)

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PROOF

 A proof is a sequence of logical statements, one implying another, which gives an

explanation of why a given statement is true. Previously established theorems may be
used to deduce the new ones; one may also refer to axioms, which are the starting points
or rules accepted by everyone.
 Mathematical proof is absolute, which means that once a theorem is proved, it is proved
forever. Until proven though, the statement is never accepted as a true one. Writing proofs
is the essence of mathematics studies.

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PROOF

 It is not easy though and requires practice, therefore it is always tempting for students to
learn theorems and apply them, leaving proofs behind.
 This is a really bad habit instead, go through the proofs given in lectures and textbooks,
understand them and ask for help whenever you are stuck.
 There are a number of methods which can be used to prove statements, some of which
will be presented in the next sections.
 Hard and tiring at the beginning, constructing proofs gives a lot of satisfaction when the
end is reached successfully.

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MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Mathematical induction is a very

useful mathematical tool to prove
theorems on natural numbers.
Although many first year students are
familiar with it, it is very often
challenging not only at the beginning
of our studies. It may come from the
fact that it is not as straightforward as
it seems.

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MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
 When constructing the proof by induction, you need to present the statement P(n) and then
follow three simple steps (simple in a sense that they can be described easily; they might be
very complicated for some examples though, especially the induction step.
 INDUCTION BASE check if P(1) is true, i.e. the statement holds for n = 1,
  
 INDUCTION HYPOTHESIS assume P(k) is true, i.e. the statement holds for n = k,
 INDUCTION STEP show that if P(k) holds, then P(k + 1) also does.
 We finish the proof with the conclusion ,”since P(1) is true and P(k) P(k +1), the statement
P(n) holds by the Principle of Mathematical Induction".

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MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

 Dominoes effect.
 Induction is often compared to dominoes toppling.
 When we push the first domino, all consecutive ones will also fall (provided
each domino is close enough to its neighbor, similarly with P(1) being true,
it can be shown by induction that also P(2); P(3); P(4); ::: and so on, will be
true. Hence we prove P(n) for infinite n.

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 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Example: Use mathematical induction to

prove that
  

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 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Example: Use mathematical induction prove that
  

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 DATA MANAGEMENT

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Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lecture, you will:

 Use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data
 Use the methods of linear regression and correlations to predict the value of a
variable given certain conditions
 Advocate the use of statistical data in making important decisions

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INTRODUCTION

Numerical data is everywhere and everyday more data is

being generated.
 It is important for us to have a working knowledge of basic
statistical concepts and tools so that we can use this data
correctly and optimally.
A lot of data in in raw, - that is not been processed for use yet.

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STATISTICS

 Statistics involves the collection, organization, summarization, presentation,

and interpretation of data.
 The branch of mathematics that involves the collection of organization,
summarization, and presentation of data is called descriptive statistics.
 The branch that interprets, and draws conclusions from the data is called
inferential statistics.

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 Numerical Methods
 It was defined on the previous lessons that descriptive statistics is concerned with the methods
of gathering, organizing, summarizing, and presenting of data.
 Tables, graphs, and visuals are certainly useful in providing information and idea about the
data but there is still a need to further condense the important characteristics of a univariate
dataset.
 These summary measures are categorized into three major classifications: measures of central
tendency, measure of relative position, and measures of dispersion.

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 Measure of Central Tendency

 A measure of central tendency is a summary measure that attempts

to describe a whole set of data with a single value that represents the
middle or center of data set.
 Most commonly used measures of central tendency or type of
averages are arithmetic mean, median and mode.

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 Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean
or just simply mean
is the sum of the
value of each
observation in a data
set divided by the
number of
observations.

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Example

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Weighted Mean
 
The weighted mean is a kind of
The weighted mean of the numbers with
average used when some data
respective assigned weights is
values are more important than
 
others.
Weighted mean
where :
weight of each item
value of each item

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Weighted Mean
Course Course Grade Course Units
Table 1.1 shows Janet’s first semester course
grades. Use the weighted mean formula to find Physics 1.75 4
the Janet’s GPA for the spring semester.
Statistics 2.25 3
Psychology 2.75 3
P.E 1.5 2

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Median
 The median is the middle number or the mean of the two
middle numbers in a list of numbers that have been arrange
in numerical order from smallest to largest or largest to
smallest.
 Any list of numbers arranged in numerical order from
smallest to largest or largest to smallest is a ranked list.

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Median
The median of a ranked list of n numbers is :
 The middle number if n is odd
 The mean of two middle numbers if n is even

For example: Find the median of the data below:

a. 4,8,1,4,9,21,12 b. 46, 23, 92, 89,77, 108

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Mode
The mode, is the value in the dataset which occurs most frequently.
 Some lists of numbers do not have a mode. For instance, 1, 6, 8,10,32,15,49,
each of number occurs exactly once. Because no number occurs more often
than the other numbers, there is no mode.
 A list of numerical data can have more than one mode. For instance, in the list
4, 2 6, 2, 7, 9, 2, 4, 9, 8, 9, 7, the numbers 2 and 9 occurs three times . Thus 2
and 9 are both modes of the data .

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Measure of Dispersion
Measure of dispersion is a quantity that describes the
spread of variability of the observations in a given
data. It is said that the higher the value, the greater the
variability is present in the data.

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Measure of Dispersion (Range)
 
The range is just the difference between the
maximum value and the minimum value taken from
  the observation, that is,

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Measure of Dispersion (Range)
The range is just the
difference between the
maximum value and the
minimum value taken from
the observation, that is,

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 Measure of Dispersion
(Mean Absolute Deviation)
A defect of the range is that it is based on only two values, the highest and the lowest; it
does not take into consideration all of the values.

The mean deviation does. It measures the mean amount by which the values in a
population, or sample, vary from their mean.
In terms of a definition: Mean Deviation is the average of the absolute values of the
deviations from the arithmetic mean.
 
Σ|𝑥 − ´𝑥|
𝑀 𝐴 𝐷=
𝑛
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 Measure of Dispersion
(Mean Absolute Deviation)
Example: The weighs of some containers being shipped to China are (thousands of pounds): 95,
103, 105, 110, 104, 105, 112, 90.
Compute the mean deviation of the weights .

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Variance and Standard Deviation

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Example: Compute for the Variance and
Standard Deviation
Given the Midterm scores: 82, 74, 77, 62, 78. What
is the variance and standard deviation.

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 Which variability measure is more important?

 It may appear that the use of both sample variance and sample standard deviation is redundant.
 Both measures reflect the same concept in measuring variability, but the sample standard
deviation measures variability in linear units whereas the sample variance is measured in
squared units.
 Both play roles in the use of statistical methods .
 In general, the variance is considered more in inferential theory, while the standard deviation
is used more in applications.

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Measure of Position (Z-SCORE)
When you take a course in college, it is natural to wonder
how you will do compared to the other students. Will you
finish in the top 10% or will you be closer to the middle?
One statistic that is often used to measure the position of a
data value with respect to other values is known as the z-
score or the standard score.

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 Measure of Position (Z-SCORE)
The z-score for a given data value x is the number of standard deviations
 

that x is above or below the mean of the data.

A negative z-score represents a value less than the mean.
A positive z-score represents a value greater than the mean . When z=0 ,
the data value is equal to the mean.
Population : Sample :

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 EXAMPLE:
 Raul has taken two tests in his chemistry class. He scored 72 on the first test, for which the
mean of all scores was 65 and the standard deviation was 8. He received a 60 on a second
test, for which the mean of all scores was 45 and the standard deviation was 12. In
comparison to the other students, did Raul do better on the first test or the second test?

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Measure of Position
Most standardized examinations provide scores in terms of percentiles.
A value x is called the pth percentile of a data set provided p% of the data values are less
than x.

The following formula can be used to find the percentile that corresponds to aparticular data
value in a set of data.

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 EXAMPLE:
 1. On a reading examination given to 900 students, Elaine’s score of 602 was higher than the
scores of 576 of the students who took the examination. What is the percentile for Elaine’s
score?
 2. On an examination given to 8600 students, Hal’s score of 405 was higher than the scores
of 3952 of the students who took the examination. What is the percentile for Hal’s score?

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Measure of Position
The three numbers Q1, Q2, and Q3 that partition a data set into four (approximately) equal
portions are called the quartiles of the data.
The quartile Q1 is called the first quartile. The quartile Q2 is called the second quartile. It is
the median of the data. The quartile Q3 is called the third quartile. The following method of
finding quartiles makes use of medians.

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Measure of Position
Example: Find the 3rd quartile of the data set below.

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NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
 One of the most important statistical distributions of data is known as a
normal distribution.
 This distribution occurs in a variety of applications.
 Types of data that may demonstrate a normal distribution include the
lengths of leaves on a tree, the weights of newborns in a hospital, the
lengths of time of a student’s trip from home to school over a period of
months, the SAT scores of a large group of students, and the life spans of
light bulbs.
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NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
 A normal distribution forms a bell-shaped curve that is symmetric about a vertical
line through the mean of the data. A graph of a normal distribution with a mean of 5
is shown above.
Properties of a Normal Distribution
 The graph is symmetric about a vertical line through the mean of the distribution.
 The mean, median, and mode are equal.
 Areas under the curve that are symmetric about the mean are equal.
 The total area under the curve is 1.

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 STANDARD NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
 It is often helpful to convert data values x to z-scores, as
we did previously using the z-score formula.
 If the original distribution of x values is a normal
distribution, then the corresponding distribution of z-
scores will also be a normal distribution.
 This normal distribution of z-scores is called the standard
normal distribution.
 It has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

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 STANDARD NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
In the standard normal distribution, the area of the distribution from z= a to z=b represents
 the percentage of z-values that lie in the interval from a to b.
 the probability that z lies in the interval from a to b.

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 EXAMPLE
A soda machine dispenses soda into 12-ounce cups. Tests show that the actual amount of soda
dispensed is normally distributed, with a mean of 11.5 oz and a standard deviation of 0.2 oz.

a. What percent of cups will receive less than 11.25 oz of soda?

b. What percent of cups will receive between 11.0 oz and 11.55 oz of soda?
c. What percent of cups will receive more than 11.25 oz of soda?

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 CORRELATION AND
REGRESSION
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CORRELATION

 Correlation is a statistical method used to determine whether a relationship

between variables exist. A variable here is a characteristic of the population
being observed or measured.
 Simple linear relationship can be positive or negative. A positive
relationship exists when either variables increase at the same time or both
decrease at the same time. On the contrary, in a negative relationship, as
one variable increases, the other variables decreases or vice versa.

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CORRELATION
 It is the most widely used in Statistics to measure the degree of the
relationship between the linear related variables.
 It requires both variables to be normally distributed.
 Correlation refers to the departure of two random variables from
independence.
 Correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) is a measure of the linear strength of
association between two variables. It is founded by Karl Pearson.
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CORRELATION

𝑛 ∑ 𝑋𝑌 − (∑ 𝑋 )(∑ 𝑌 )
𝑟=
  

2 2
[√ 𝑛∑ 𝑋 −(∑ 𝑋 ) ] [ 𝑛∑ 𝑌 − (∑ 𝑌 ) ]
2

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CORRELATION
 The value of the correlation coefficient varies between -1 and +1.
 Guilford’s suggested interpretation for the value of .
Value Interpretation

Less than 0.20 Slight; Almost negligible relationship

   Low correlation; definite but small relationship
0.20-0.40
Moderate correlation; substantial relationship
0.41-0.70
0.71-0.90 High correlation; marked relationship
Very high correlation; very dependable relationship
0.91-1.00

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 1 2 3 4 5 6 Days

CORRELATION 79 76 78 84 90 83 Temperature (

147
147 143
143 147
147 168
168 206
206 155
155 Sales
Sales

 Example: The owner of a chain of fruit shake store would like to study the correlation between
atmospheric temperature and sales during the summer season. A random sample of 6 days is selected
with the results given as follows. Compute the coefficient of correlation.

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REGRESSION

 Regression analysis is a statistical method used to describe the nature of

the relationship between variables. There are two types of regression
analysis: simple and multiple.
 In simple linear regression, there are two variables- an independent
(predictor variable) and a dependent (response variable). On the other
hand, multiple linear regression, there are two or more independent
variables used to predict the dependent variable.

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LINEAR REGRESSION

It is a simple statistical tool used to model the dependence of a

variable on one (or more) explanatory variables.
This functional relationship may then be formally stated as an
equation, with associated values that describe how well this
equation fits the data.

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LINEAR REGRESSION

  

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 1 2 3 4 5 6 Days

Example! 79 76 78 84 90 83 Temperature (

147
147 143
143 147
147 168
168 206
206 155
155 Sales
Sales

 Example: The owner of a chain of fruit shake store would like to study the correlation between
atmospheric temperature and sales during the summer season. A random sample of 12 days is selected
with the results given as follows. Find the linear regression equation.

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