Inspection and Testing Welds

Reasons for inspecting welds

• Most welds have flaws in them

• A flaw is a part of a weld that is not perfect.

• Some flaws are so small they can be found only under a microscope.

• Other ones are easily seen, which include porosity and large cracks.

A defect is a flaw that makes

a weld unusable for the job it
is intended to perform (eg.
Cracks when welding on a
gas pipeline)
Inspecting welds
 Welds must be inspected to detect flaws. Then, the
flaws must be evaluated to decide if they are
acceptable or if they are defects.

 Most welding is done to requirements of a code or

specification. The code or specification determines
how large a flaw can be before it becomes a defect.

A visual inspection is useful to determine the size of

a weld, to check for undercut, overlap, and other
surface flaws, and to check travel speed, arc length,
and depth of penetration.
Weld Tests

Weld
Nondestructive Destructive
tests

NON-destructive Destructive test

Examinations (NDE), results in at least some
does not damage the damage to the weld.
weld or the base
metal.
Destructive Examinations (DE)

Tensile test,
Bend test,
Fillet test,
Hardness test,
Impact test,
Peel test (for spot welds),
Tensile shear test (for spot welds),
Pressure test.
Tensile test
• A tensile test is a destructive test in which a tensile
(stretching or pulling) load is applied to a prepared
sample until the sample breaks.
Tensile Strength and Ductility

Maximum force applied by machine

Tensile strength=
Cross-sectional area of sample

o
Ductility

Distance between
points after test –
distance before test
Ductility= x 100
distance before test
 Bend test
• Specimen is positioned between two supports, and a load is
applied at its center.

• Bend tests are used to evaluate the quality and ductility of a

completed weld.
Bend test
In a guided bend test, the size or radius of
the bend is controlled.

Click on image to see the video clip

 Bend test
In a free bend test, the sample is placed into a large,
strong vise and struck with a hammer until it bends to a
90˚ angle. It is then hammered in the opposite direction to
a 90˚ angle. This back and forth bending continues until
the weld sample breaks.
 Fillet test
In a fillet test, force is applied to the
welded joint until it breaks or until the
vertical piece is bent flat against the
horizontal piece.

The weld should break along its

centerline.

A weld that breaks

along the toe may
indicate a lack of
fusion.
Hardness test
Hardness tests are used to measure a material’s resistance to
scratching and indentation.

To determine the hardness of a metal, an indenter is pressed

into the metal by a known force. The depth of indentation
indicates the hardness of the metal.
Other destructive tests

Impact resistance test

Other destructive tests

Peel test (for spot welds)

Tensile shear test (for spot welds)

 INTRODUCTION TO
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
 Definition of NDT
The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of
an object.

i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

 Methods of NDT
The
rmo
grap
Visual Micr hy
ow ave
a r ticle
t i ng et ic P
e s Magn
Tap T
Acousti
X-ray c Mi croscop
y
Acoust
ic Emissi en ts t
o n em t ra n
a sur Pe ne
M e iq uid
etic L
Ult agn
ra son M Replication
ic
Lase Eddy
r Inter Curr
Lea kage ferom ent
Fl u x etry
 When are NDT Methods Used?
There are NDT application at almost any stage
in the production or life cycle of a component.
– To assist in product development
– To screen or sort incoming materials
– To monitor, improve or control manufacturing
processes
– To verify proper processing such as heat treating
– To verify proper assembly
– To inspect for in-service damage
Six Most Common NDT Methods
• Visual
• Liquid Penetrant
• Magnetic
• Ultrasonic
• Eddy Current
• X-ray
Visual Inspection
Most basic and common
inspection method.

– illuminate the test

specimen with light
– examine the specimen
with the eye

Tools include
fiberscopes,
borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.
Portable video inspection
Robotic crawlers permit unit with zoom allows
observation in hazardous inspection of large tanks
or tight areas, such as air and vessels, railroad tank
ducts, reactors, pipelines. cars, sewer lines.
VISUAL INSPECTION EQUIPMENT:
VISUAL INSPECTION EQUIPMENT:

• Magnifying Glass
• Magnifying Mirror
• Microscope
• Borescope
– endoscopes or endoprobes
• Flexible Fiber Optic Borescope
– working lengths are normally 60 to 365 cm with
diameters from 3 to 12.5 mm
• Video Image scope
APPLICATIONS OF VISUAL INSPECTION
Visual examination are carried out before welding,
during welding and after welding.
Before Welding:
For detecting dents, burrs, scales, seams or laps
and also dirt grease rust and mill scale on the
fusion faces and edge preparation.
During Welding:
For checking the geometry of the edge and joint
preparation i.e. root face, bevel and included
angles etc.
After Welding:
For cleaning the weld and to remove spatter, scale
and slag
Welding Defect To Be Inspected
By Visual Inspection
By visual inspection finished welds are
inspected for following external defects:
1. Appearance of ripples on the weld
2. Lack of fusion at the root of the butt weld
3. Overlaps
4. Undercuts
5. Unfilled craters
6. External cracks
7. Improper size and shape of beads
8. Misalignment
9. Surface porosity
10.Excessive reinforcement and spatter
11.Arc strikes
Advantages And Disadvantages of
Visual Inspection
Advantages:
1. Economical
2. Expedient
3. Requires relatively little training
4. Relatively little and less costly equipment
5. Versatile
6. Most widely used of all the nondestructive tests.
7. Simple, easy to apply, quickly carried out and
usually low in cost.
Disadvantages:
1. Limited to external defects or surface conditions
only
2. Limited to the visual acuity of the inspector
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
• A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is
applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to
seep into surface breaking defects.
• The excess liquid is removed from the surface of
the part.
• A developer (powder) is applied to pull the
trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it on
the surface where it can be seen.
• Visual inspection is the final step in the process.
The penetrant used is often loaded with a
fluorescent dye and the inspection is done under
UV light to increase test sensitivity.
Introduction of liquid penetrant testing
LPT is based on the ability of a penetrating liquid to
wet the surface opening of a weld defect and to be
drawn into it.
LPT is used to detect the surface opening likes cracks,
surface porosity etc in stainless steel, Al,
magnesium, brass and other non porous metals.
LPT is of two types:
1. Dye penetrant testing ( Uses red colour liquid
penetrant such as Dy check, Met L check)

2. Fluorescent penetrant testing( Uses Fluorescent

liquid such as Zyglo penetrex)
 Steps In Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Liquid penetrant testing involves the following basic

steps:

1. Surface preparation
2. Penetrant application
3. Dwell time ( 3-20 min and 30 to 60 min)
4. Removal of excess penetrant
5. Application of developer
6. Surface inspection
7. Post cleaning
 Penetrant Application Application of Developer

Fine chalk like silicate developer is

Penetrant is applied by brushing , applied after the removal of excess
flooding, spraying penetrant to soak up the liquid
It is good to heat the specimen to penetrant in order to make the
widen the surface opening slightly cracks visible by blotting paper
action
 Surface Inspection
There are two types of indications: True and False indications.
True indications are caused by penetrant bleeding out from actual
surface as shown below

Large crack: A line of some width

Fatigue crack: A line of dots
Porosity : Dots
Actual result of liquid penetrant testing
ADVANTAGES OF LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

1.May be used on all non porous materials.

2.Versatile and portable
3.Relatively inexpensive
4.Expedient inspection results
5.Result are easily interpreted
6.Requires no electrical energy except for light
source
7.Indications may be further examined visually
APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID PENETRANT
INSPECTION

1. Used to detect weld discontinuities open to surface i.e.

Cracks, porosity ,seams
2. Used on nonporous materials
3. Can be applied to welds, tubing, brazing, castings,
billets, forgings, aluminium parts, turbine blades and
disks, gears
LIMITATIONS LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

1. Surface film such as coatings, scale hide rejectable defects

2. Bleed out from porous surface can also mask indications
3. Part must be cleaned before and after inspection
4. Defects must be surface breaking
5. Decontamination & precleaning of test surface may be
needed
6. Vapour hazard
7. It is difficult to find very tight and shallow defects
8. Depth of flaw not indicated
 Magnetic Particle Testing
• MPT is used to detect surface or near surface defects in magnetic
materials.
• MPT is based on the principle that magnetic lines of force, when present
in a ferromagnetic material, will be distorted by an interruption in
material continuity .
• If a magnet is bent and the two poles are joined so as to form a closed
ring, no external poles exist and hence it will have no attraction for
magnetic material.
• Thus as long as part to be inspected is free of cracks, magnetic particle
will not be attracted.
• When a crack or other discontinuity is present , north and south
magnetic are set up at edges of the discontinuity
• The magnetic particles will be attracted to the poles which are the edges
of the crack and will cluster to form an indication directly over the
discontinuity
 Magnetic Particle Inspection
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment are
then applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic flux
leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the discontinuity.
This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting conditions.
Methods of operation
To achieve best results in MPT magnetic flux lines should be
oriented in a direction perpendicular to the discontinuity or defect
Circular Magnetization Longitudinal Magnetization

It is used to detect longitudinal It is used to detect circumferential

defects in the conductor defects in the conductor
The Apparatus
Prod method is used to magnetized localized area by passing current
Through the components by means of hand held contact ort prod
Applications of MPT
MPT is used to detect following defects:
1. Surface and sub surface cracks
2. Incomplete fusion
3. Slag inclusion
4. Porosity
5. Inadequate joint penetration
6. Lamination
7. Seams undercut
In magnetic steels, cast irons, nickel and cobalt
alloys
Magnetic Particle Crack Indications
Advantages & Disadvantages of MPT
Advantages:
1. Inexpensive and portable apparatus
2. Reliable results
3. Can detect subsurface defects

Disadvantages:
1. limited to only ferromagnetic materials
2. Parts must be cleaned before and after
inspection
3. Need to demagnetize parts after inspection
Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting
surface cracks but can also be used to make electrical
conductivity and coating thickness measurements. Here a small
surface probe is scanned over the part surface in an attempt to
detect a crack.
 Eddy Current Principle
•When an energized coil is brought near to the surface of a metal or
conducting component, eddy currents are induced into the specimen by
electromagnetic induction.
•These currents set-up magnetic field that tend to oppose the original
magnetic field.
•The impedance of coil in close proximity to the specimen is affected by
the presence of the induced eddy currents in the specimen.
•When the eddy currents in the specimen are distorted by the presence of
the flaws or material variations, the impedance in the coil is altered.
•This change is measured and displayed in a manner that indicates
the type of flaw or material condition.
Eddy Current Testing

Coil's
Coil magnetic field

Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents

Conductive
material
 Advantages & Disadvantages of ECT
Advantages:
1.Relatively expedient Disadvantages:
2.Low cost
3.Automation is possible for symmetrical parts 1.Limited to conductive
4.No couplant is required
5.Probe does not have to be in intimate contact with
materials
the test piece.
2.Shallow depth of
penetration
3.Some indications may be
masked by part geometry
due to sensitivity variation
4.Reference standard are
l required
 Applications of ECT
Following are the main applications of ECT:
1.Weld discontinuities open to the surface i.e. cracks,
porosity etc
2.Sub surface defects
3.Alloy content
4.Heat treatment variation
5.Wall thickness
6.Range from crack detection, to the rapid sorting of small
components for either flaws, size variations, or material
variation.
7.Commonly used in aerospace, automotive, marine, and
manufacturing industries.
 Radiography
The radiation used in radiography
testing is a higher energy (shorter
High Electrical Potential
wavelength) version of the
electromagnetic waves that we
see as visible light. The radiation can Electrons
come from an X-ray generator or a + -
radioactive source.
X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation

Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

 Principle of Radiography
When a test piece or a welded joint is exposed to a
penetrating radiation like X rays or γ rays variations
in amount of radiation transmitted through it
depends upon:

– The relative densities of the metal and any inclusion

– Thru thickness variation

Non metallic inclusions, pores, aligned cracks and

other defects results in less or more radiation
reaching the recording film.
The variations in transmitted radiation produce
optically contrasting areas on the recording film
 X RAY TUBE

The source of electrons for Coolidge X ray tube is a heated tungsten

wire filament, operating in the range of 6 to 15 V with a current of 3 to
5 amp.
The power requirement for the x ray machine range from 50 to 24000
KV.
A 24000KV X ray machine is capable of photographing
approximately 500 mm thick steel plate
Film Radiography
The part is placed between the
radiation source and a piece of film.
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.

The film darkness

(density) will vary with
the amount of radiation
X-ray film reaching the film
through the test object.
= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
Radiographic Images
Advantages & Disadvantages of Radiography

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1.Permanent record enables 1.Radiation is a safety &requires special
review by parties at later dates facilities, monitoring of exposure levels
2.Gamma source may be and dosage to personnel
positioned inside of the 2.Source decay over their half lives and
accessible object must be periodically replaced
3.Energy efficient 3.Gamma source have constant
wavelength and cannot be adjusted
4.It requires highly skilled operating and
interpretive personnel
5.High initial cost of x ray equipment
 Applications of Radiography
It is used to detect most of the sub surface weld
defects such as
1.cracks,
2.porosity,
3. lack of fusion,
4.incomplete penetration,
5.Slag and corrosion entrapment
6. wall thickness
7. dimensional evaluations
 Radioscopy
Radioscopy or real time radiography is the x ray radiography in which the
component are inspected for subsurface defects and the image is obtained on
the screen and on the recorder while at the it is analyzed with the of computers
 Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)
High frequency (20000 Hz) sound waves are introduced
into a material and they are reflected back from surfaces
or flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and
inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimen
f
showing the depth of features that reflect sound.

initial
pulse

back surface
echo
crack
echo

crack

0 2 4 6 8 10 plate

Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen
Types of wave form
Operating system

Ultrasonic testing uses

following OS:

Pulse echo system

Through Transmission
system

Resonance system
Through Transmission system
 Ultrasonic Imaging
High resolution images can be produced by plotting
signal strength or time-of-flight using a computer-
controlled scanning system.

Gray scale image produced using Gray scale image produced using the
the sound reflected from the front sound reflected from the back surface
surface of the coin of the coin (inspected from “heads” side)
Common Application of NDT
Inspection of Raw Products
Inspection Following Secondary
Processing
In-Services Damage Inspection
Inspection of Raw Products
Forgings,
Castings,
Extrusions,
etc.
Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
Machining
Welding
Grinding
Heat treating
Plating
etc.
Inspection For
In-Service Damage
Cracking
Corrosion
Erosion/Wear
Heat Damage
etc.
Power Plant Inspection
Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current
probes into heat exchanger
tubes to check for corrosion
damage.

Pipe with damage Probe

Signals
produced by
various amounts
of corrosion
thinning.
Wire Rope Inspection
Electromagnetic devices and
visual inspections are used to
find broken wires and other
damage to the wire rope that
is used in chairlifts, cranes and
other lifting devices.
 Storage Tank Inspection
Robotic crawlers use
ultrasound to inspect
the walls of large
above ground tanks
for signs of thinning
due to corrosion.

Cameras on
long
articulating
arms are used
to inspect
underground
storage tanks
for damage.
 Aircraft Inspection
• Nondestructive testing is
used extensively during the
manufacturing of aircraft.
• NDT is also used to find
cracks and corrosion
damage during operation of
the aircraft.
• A fatigue crack that started
at the site of a lightning
strike is shown below.
 Jet Engine Inspection
• Aircraft engines are overhauled
after being in service for a period
of time.
• They are completely disassembled,
cleaned, inspected and then
reassembled.
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection
is used to check many of the parts
for cracking.
 Crash of United Flight 232
A defect that went
undetected in an
engine disk was
responsible for
the crash of
United Flight 232.
Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel
can result in the rapid release of
a large amount of energy. To
protect against this dangerous
event, the tanks are inspected
using radiography and
ultrasonic testing.
Rail Inspection
Special cars are used to
inspect thousands of miles
of rail to find cracks that
could lead to a derailment.
 Bridge Inspection
• The US has 578,000
highway bridges.
• Corrosion, cracking and
other damage can all
affect a bridge’s
performance.
• The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in
loss of 47 lives.
• Bridges get a visual
inspection about every 2
years.
• Some bridges are fitted
with acoustic emission
sensors that “listen” for
sounds of cracks growing.
Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines
to prevent leaks that could
damage the environment. Visual
inspection, radiography and
electromagnetic testing are some
of the NDT methods used.

Remote visual inspection using

a robotic crawler.

Magnetic flux leakage inspection.

This device, known as a pig, is
placed in the pipeline and collects
data on the condition of the pipe as it
is pushed along by whatever is being
transported.
Radiography of weld joints.
 Special Measurements
Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of evaluating
the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques. Eddy current methods
were used to measure the electrical conductivity of the Bell's bronze
casing at various points to evaluate its uniformity.
T H A N K S