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Transportation Engineering I CIV 421

The document discusses various types of traffic studies and volume count methods that are important for transportation engineering. It describes different categories of traffic studies like inventories, dynamic studies, and administrative studies. It also explains different types of volume count units like average daily traffic, peak hour volume, vehicle classification counts, and passenger car equivalents. Finally, it summarizes manual count methods using tally sheets or pneumatic tubes and automatic count methods using inductive loops or tubes to collect volume data.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
75 views30 pages

Transportation Engineering I CIV 421

The document discusses various types of traffic studies and volume count methods that are important for transportation engineering. It describes different categories of traffic studies like inventories, dynamic studies, and administrative studies. It also explains different types of volume count units like average daily traffic, peak hour volume, vehicle classification counts, and passenger car equivalents. Finally, it summarizes manual count methods using tally sheets or pneumatic tubes and automatic count methods using inductive loops or tubes to collect volume data.

Uploaded by

Gabriel James
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Civil Engineering Department

AKWA IBOM STATE UNIVERSITY

Transportation Engineering I
CIV 421

Lecture 3A_ Traffic Studies

1
Introduction

Traffic Studies is important to;


Managing the physical system, Investigating trends over time, Understanding the
needs and choices of the public and industry, Calibrating basic relationships or
parameters, Assessing the effectiveness of improvements, Assessing potential
impacts, Evaluating facility or system performance.
It can be categorized under;
Inventories; Providing a list or graphical display of existing information, such as
street widths, parking spaces, transit routes, traffic regulation etc
Dynamic Studies; Involve the collection of data under operational conditions
and include studies of speed, traffic volume, travel time and delay, parking and
crashes.
Administrative Studies; Involve studies using existing engineering records,
available in government agencies and departments.

Examples;Volume studies, Speed studies, Travel – Time studies, Delay


studies,
Density Studies, Accident Studies, Parking Studies, Goods Movement and
2
Transit Studies, Pedestrian Studies etc.
Volume Count Units I

The common types of counts include;


Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
It is the average of 24 hour counts collected everyday in the year. It represents
1/365 of the total annual flow. It is often used for estimating the total travel on a
road system and for determining the gross annual revenues from road users. It is
also used as standard for pavement design and maintenance.
Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
It is the average of 24 hour counts collected over a number of days greater than 1
but less than a year. They are often needed for measurement of current demand
and evaluation of existing traffic flow.
Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
It is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway during a
period
of 60 consecutive minutes. PHVs are often used for ;
•Functional classification of highways
•Capacity analysis (lane number, signal time, channelization)
•Development of parking regulations 3
Volume Count Units II

Vehicle Classification (VC)/ Classified Counts


Volumes are recorded with respect to the type of vehicles eg. Passenger cars, two-axle trucks,
or three-axle trucks. They are important for geometric design characteristics eg. Turning radii,
maximum grades, lane widths etc. Also for structural design of pavements.
Passenger Car Units (PCU)/ Passenger Car Equivalence (PCE)
It converts the volume into equivalent passenger car units where traffic is composed of a
number of type of vehicles by using equivalency factors. It shows the impact that a mode of
transport has on traffic variables (such as headway, speed, density) compared to a single car.
They are often used in the determination of highway capacity.

American Unite Kingdom


private car (including taxis or Motorbike 0.4
pick-up) 1 Car 1.0
motorcycle 0.5 LGV 1.0
bicycle 0.2 RGV 1.9
horse drawn vehicle 4 Articulated goods vehicle 2.9
bus, tractor, truck 3.5 PSV (bus) 2.5

4
Volume Count Units III

Vehicle Kilometres of Travel (VKT)


This is a measure of travel along a section of road. It is the product of the traffic
volume and the length of road way to which the volume is applicable. VKTs are
used mainly as a base for allocating resources for maintenance and improvement
of highways. It is also used in determining level of vehicle emissions.

Find out the following;


What is passenger – km and when it is often used.
What is Passengers per bus hour and when it is often used.

5
Methods of Conducting Volume
Counts I
There are two main methods of conducting volume counts which are namely;
Manual Counts and Automatic Counts. Benefits of each include;
Manual Counts
•Details such as vehicle classification and number of occupants can be
easily
obtained. Unusual conditions obtained during time of count can be recorded.
•In developing countries where automatic devices are hard to come by this method
is
comparatively cheap.
•They easily compliment and can serve as a check on the accuracy of data
collected by automatic means.
Automatic Counts
•Where continuous and regular record of traffic flow is needed, the only alternative
is to use automatic counts
•If counts of remote areas are needed, automatic devices are useful
•They yield data which is amenable to easy analysis by computers.
16
Manual Counts I

Involves one or more persons recording observed vehicles using a counter.


Considerations
•Link counts should be located on straight sections of road for good visibility.
Duration can be from a few minutes to several days, depending on purpose. Most
counts are carried out for one day, starting before the morning peak hour, and
extending for 12,
14 or 16 hours. Count periods are usually 15 minutes, with results
summarised
hourly.
•In Turning movement counts the vehicle classification system is simplified (to
compensate for the extra demands on Surveyors). These surveys are primarily
concerned with the performance of the junction during peak periods. Count periods
are usually 15 minutes. However, at signalised junctions short-term volumes are
determined by signal operations, and cycle times in excess of 2 minutes, or count
periods less than 15minutes, may cause apparent fluctuations in flow. In such
cases it is best to record flow for each cycle, using the cycle time as the counting
period.
17
Manual Counts II

Survey Forms
•Pencil and Paper method; -The 'five-bar gate' method is the most versatile and
is applicable to both link and turning counts. It records data quickly(without the
need for extreme neatness), is the most economical in use of space on the survey
form and can be summarised quickly.
•Alternatively, hand tallies can be used to record specific vehicle classes. They
are faster and more accurate than pencil and paper methods, because only the
total is recorded, at the end of each count period, and the surveyor is looking at
the traffic flow almost continuously. However, vehicles can be missed while
recording the cumulative total at the end of each count period.
Equipment Needed
1. A watch 2. Pencils, eraser and pencil sharpener 3. Supply of blank field data
sheets 4. Clipboards
Errors in Manual Counts
1. Failure to define vehicle classification unambiguously
2. Failure to observe time periods accurately
18
3. Surveyors having to count vehicles at a faster rate.
Manual Counts III

9
Automatic Counts I

Automatic traffic counter equipment consists of a detector, to detect the vehicle,


and a counter to record the information. The most common types of detector used
in traffic counting are a hollow rubber pneumatic tube, held to the road surface
by special clips, or an inductance loop (several turns of wire laid on or in the
road surface in a rectangular or diamond shape).

Pneumatic Tubes
Pneumatic tubes detect the movement of a vehicle as the tube is depressed by a
tyre; this creates a pulse of air which closes a diaphragm in the recorder. The
count site must not be located where braking or acceleration occurs, or where
overtaking is common, such as near junctions, bus stops, or other parking
locations.

Why should pneumatic tubes not be located where braking or acceleration


occurs or
where overtaking is common?
10
Automatic Counts II
Pneumatic Tube

11
Types of Volume Counts

Cordon Counts
A cordon is an imaginary boundary around a study area. It is generally established
to define a CBD or other major activity centre where the accumulation of vehicles
within the area is of great importance in traffic planning. The intersection of each
street crossing the cordon line is taken as a count station; volume counts of
vehicles or persons entering and leaving the cordon area are counted.
Cordon counts are useful for
•Planning parking facilities
•Updating and evaluating traffic operational techniques
•Making long range plans for freeway and arterial facilities
Screen Line Counts
In screen line counts the study area is divided into large sections by running
imaginary lines, known as screen lines, across it.
Natural and man – made barriers such as rivers or railway tracks are often used.
Traffic counts are taken at each point where a road crosses the screen line. It is
important for the screen line not to be traversed by the same road several times.
Often these counts are done to determine the variations in the traffic volume 24
and traffic flow direction due to change in land use pattern of the area.
Types of Volume Counts

Intersection Counts
They are taken to determine vehicle classification through movements and turning
movements
at intersections. The data obtained from this count is useful for ;
•Determining phase lengths and cycle time for signalised intersections.
•Design of channelisation at intersections
•Design improvements of intersections
Pedestrian Volume Counts
Volume counts of pedestrians are made at locations such as intersections, along sidewalks
and
midblock crossings, overpasses, underpasses etc.
Data from this count could be used for crash analysis , capacity analysis, and determining
minimum signal timings at signalised intersections.
Periodic Volume Counts
To make reasonable estimates of annual traffic volume characteristics on an area wide basis,
different types of periodic counts, with count durations ranging from 15 minutes to 60
continuous are conducted. The various periodic counts conducted include continuous,
control and coverage counts.
13
Periodic Counts

Continuous Counts. These counts are taken continuously using mechanical or electronic
counters. In selecting stations where continuous counts are done (permanent count stations)
the highways within the study area must first be properly classified. Thus links should be
categorized according to similar traffic characteristics such as AADT and daily, weekly and
seasonal variations in traffic volumes.
Control Counts. These counts are taken at stations known as control count stations which
are strategically located so that representative samples of traffic volume can be taken on
each type of highway or street in an area wide traffic counting program. The data obtained
from control counts are used to determine seasonal and monthly variations of traffic
characteristics so that expansion factors can be determined. Control counts can be divided
into major and minor control counts. Major control counts are taken monthly, with 24-hr
directional counts taken on at least three days during the week ( Tues, Wed, Thurs) and also
on Saturday and Sunday to represent the weekend.
Coverage Counts. These counts are used to estimate ADT, using expansion factors
developed from control counts. The study area is usually divided into zones that have similar
traffic characteristics. At least one coverage count station is located in each zone. A 24-hr non
directional weekday count is taken at least once every 4 years at each coverage station. It
tells changes in area wide traffic characteristics.

14
Adjustment of Periodic Counts
 
Expansion factors, used to adjust period counts, are determined either from
continuous count stations or from control count stations. Hourly, daily, and monthly
expansion factors can be determined using data obtained at continuous count
stations.
Hourly Expansion Factors (HEF)
These factors are used to expand counts of duration shorter than 24-hr to 24-hr
volumes by multiplying the hourly volumes for each hour during the count period
by the HEF for that hour and finding the mean of these products.

HEF=

Daily Expansion Factors (DEF)


These factors are used to determine weekly volumes from counts of 24-hr duration
by multiplying the 24-hr volumes by the DEF
DEF = average total volume for the week
average volume for particular
day 15
Adjustment of Periodic Counts

Monthly Expansion Factors(HEF)


The AADT for a given year may be obtained from the ADT for a given month by
multiplying this
volume by the MEF

MEF= AADT
ADT for particular month

16
Adjustment of Periodic Counts

Hourly Expansion Factors(HEF) for a rural primary road

17
Adjustment of Periodic Counts

Daily Expansion Factors(DEF) for a rural primary road

18
Adjustment of Periodic Counts

Monthly Expansion Factors(DEF) for a rural primary road

19
Adjustment of Periodic Counts

Example on expansion factors;


A traffic engineer urgently needs to determine the AADT on a rural primary road that has
the volume distribution characteristics shown in the previous tables. She collected the data
shown below on a Tuesday during the month of May. Determine the AADT of the road.
7:00 –8:00 a.m. = 400
8:00 –9:00 a.m. = 535
9:00 –10:00 a.m. = 650
10:00 –11:00 a.m.=710
11:00 –12 noon = 650

20
Adjustment of Periodic Counts

Solution
24-hr volume for Tuesday = ( 400x29)+(535x22.05)+(650x18.80)+(710x17.10)+(650x18.52)
5
= 11,959

Average 24-hr ( By weekly adjustment using Tuesday) =


11,959x7.727 = 13,201
7

AADT (using data collected in May) = 13,201x1.394 =


18,402.

21
Presentation of Volume Data

Traffic Flow Maps


These maps show traffic volumes on individual routes. The volume of traffic on
each route is represented by the width of a band, which is drawn in proportion to
the traffic volume it represents, providing a graphic representation of the different
volumes that facilitates easy visualisation of the relative volumes of traffic on the
different routes.

3
5
Presentation of Volume Data

Intersection Summary Sheet


These sheets are graphic representations of the volume and directions of all traffic
movements through the intersection

23
Speed Studies

Speed is the rate of movement of traffic or specified components of traffic and is


often expressed in km/h.
Spot Speed: It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location.
Running Speed: It is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given
course while the vehicle is in motion.
Running speed = Length of course = Length of course
Running time
Journey time - delay
Journey Speed ; It is the effective speed of a vehicle between two points, and is
the distance between two points divided by the total time taken by the vehicle to
complete the journey, including all delays incurred en – route.
Journey Speed = Distance
Total journey time (including delays)
Time- mean Speed: It is the average of the speed measurements at one point in
space over a period of the time. It is average of a number of spot speed
measurements.
2
4
Speed Studies
Purpose

Speed studies may be used for;

•Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed zones,
speed
limits and passing restrictions.
•Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices, such as a variable message
signs at work zones.
•Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programmes such as the use of radar
guns.
•Evaluate and determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics such
as
radii of horizontal curves and lengths of vertical curves.
•Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through the analysis of crash data
for different speed characteristics.
•Determine speed trends
•Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid
2
5
Manual Method of Measuring
Spot Speed
The main manual method used is the Direct timing procedure .

Direct Timing Procedure

Two reference points are marked on the pavement at a suitable distance apart and
an observer starts and stops an accurate stop watch as a vehicle crosses these
two marks. From the known distance and the measured time intervals speeds are
calculated.

Skilled observers can read a stop – watch to an accuracy of 0.2sec. If the


observer stations himself inconspicuously, the speed readings are not influenced
by driver reaction.

The disadvantage of this method is errors due to the parallax effect. Parallax is a
displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed along two
different lines of sight. 2
6
Manual Method of Measuring
Spot Speed
A simple device called Enoscope eliminates the parallax effect that creeps in
when the direct readings are taken by one observer.
The instrument bends the line of sight of the observer so that it is perpendicular to
the path of the vehicle.

The stop watch is started as soon as the vehicle passes the first reference point
and is stopped as soon as it passes the observer.

2
7
Automatic Method of Measuring
Spot Speed
Automatic methods can be categorized under;
1. Road detectors
2. Radar guns
3. Photographic and video camera

Road Detectors
They can be categorized into pneumatic road tubes and inductive loops. They
can also be used to collect volume data apart from speeds. The advantage of the
detector meters is that human errors are considerably reduced. The following
disadvantages
are associated with them;
1. The devices are expensive
2. Where pneumatic tubes are used, they are rather conspicuous and may,
therefore affect driver behaviour, resulting in a distortion of the speed
distribution.
2
8
Automatic Method of Measuring
Spot Speed
Radar Guns
They work on the principle that when a signal is transmitted onto a moving vehicle,
the change in frequency between the transmitted signal and the reflected signal is
proportional to the speed of the moving vehicle.

The advantage of this method is that it can be located at an inconspicuous


position
where the influence on driver behaviour is considerably reduced.

Photographic and video camera


Time – lapse camera photography has been used successfully to determine the
speeds of vehicles accurately. By this method photographs are taken at fixed
intervals of time (say one second per frame) on a special camera. By projecting
the film on a screen, the passage of any vehicle can be traced with reference to
time. Images by video cameras can also be used.
The major advantage is that one needs not to physically install a device like
pneumatic tube or loop on the road. 2
9
Analysis and Presentation
Spot Speed
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Average Speed : This is the arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds ( which
is the sum of all spot speeds divided by the number of recorded speeds. It is given
by ;

Where ῡ = arithmetic mean


fi = number of observations in each speed group
ui= mid value for the ith speed group

Median: This is the speed at the middle value in a series of spot speeds that are
arranged in ascending order. 50% of the speed values will be greater than the
median; 50% will be lesser than the median

Modal Speed: This is the speed value that occurs most frequently in a sample of
spot speeds.
9

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