Transportation Engineering I CIV 421
Transportation Engineering I CIV 421
Transportation Engineering I
CIV 421
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Introduction
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Volume Count Units III
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Methods of Conducting Volume
Counts I
There are two main methods of conducting volume counts which are namely;
Manual Counts and Automatic Counts. Benefits of each include;
Manual Counts
•Details such as vehicle classification and number of occupants can be
easily
obtained. Unusual conditions obtained during time of count can be recorded.
•In developing countries where automatic devices are hard to come by this method
is
comparatively cheap.
•They easily compliment and can serve as a check on the accuracy of data
collected by automatic means.
Automatic Counts
•Where continuous and regular record of traffic flow is needed, the only alternative
is to use automatic counts
•If counts of remote areas are needed, automatic devices are useful
•They yield data which is amenable to easy analysis by computers.
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Manual Counts I
Survey Forms
•Pencil and Paper method; -The 'five-bar gate' method is the most versatile and
is applicable to both link and turning counts. It records data quickly(without the
need for extreme neatness), is the most economical in use of space on the survey
form and can be summarised quickly.
•Alternatively, hand tallies can be used to record specific vehicle classes. They
are faster and more accurate than pencil and paper methods, because only the
total is recorded, at the end of each count period, and the surveyor is looking at
the traffic flow almost continuously. However, vehicles can be missed while
recording the cumulative total at the end of each count period.
Equipment Needed
1. A watch 2. Pencils, eraser and pencil sharpener 3. Supply of blank field data
sheets 4. Clipboards
Errors in Manual Counts
1. Failure to define vehicle classification unambiguously
2. Failure to observe time periods accurately
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3. Surveyors having to count vehicles at a faster rate.
Manual Counts III
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Automatic Counts I
Pneumatic Tubes
Pneumatic tubes detect the movement of a vehicle as the tube is depressed by a
tyre; this creates a pulse of air which closes a diaphragm in the recorder. The
count site must not be located where braking or acceleration occurs, or where
overtaking is common, such as near junctions, bus stops, or other parking
locations.
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Types of Volume Counts
Cordon Counts
A cordon is an imaginary boundary around a study area. It is generally established
to define a CBD or other major activity centre where the accumulation of vehicles
within the area is of great importance in traffic planning. The intersection of each
street crossing the cordon line is taken as a count station; volume counts of
vehicles or persons entering and leaving the cordon area are counted.
Cordon counts are useful for
•Planning parking facilities
•Updating and evaluating traffic operational techniques
•Making long range plans for freeway and arterial facilities
Screen Line Counts
In screen line counts the study area is divided into large sections by running
imaginary lines, known as screen lines, across it.
Natural and man – made barriers such as rivers or railway tracks are often used.
Traffic counts are taken at each point where a road crosses the screen line. It is
important for the screen line not to be traversed by the same road several times.
Often these counts are done to determine the variations in the traffic volume 24
and traffic flow direction due to change in land use pattern of the area.
Types of Volume Counts
Intersection Counts
They are taken to determine vehicle classification through movements and turning
movements
at intersections. The data obtained from this count is useful for ;
•Determining phase lengths and cycle time for signalised intersections.
•Design of channelisation at intersections
•Design improvements of intersections
Pedestrian Volume Counts
Volume counts of pedestrians are made at locations such as intersections, along sidewalks
and
midblock crossings, overpasses, underpasses etc.
Data from this count could be used for crash analysis , capacity analysis, and determining
minimum signal timings at signalised intersections.
Periodic Volume Counts
To make reasonable estimates of annual traffic volume characteristics on an area wide basis,
different types of periodic counts, with count durations ranging from 15 minutes to 60
continuous are conducted. The various periodic counts conducted include continuous,
control and coverage counts.
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Periodic Counts
Continuous Counts. These counts are taken continuously using mechanical or electronic
counters. In selecting stations where continuous counts are done (permanent count stations)
the highways within the study area must first be properly classified. Thus links should be
categorized according to similar traffic characteristics such as AADT and daily, weekly and
seasonal variations in traffic volumes.
Control Counts. These counts are taken at stations known as control count stations which
are strategically located so that representative samples of traffic volume can be taken on
each type of highway or street in an area wide traffic counting program. The data obtained
from control counts are used to determine seasonal and monthly variations of traffic
characteristics so that expansion factors can be determined. Control counts can be divided
into major and minor control counts. Major control counts are taken monthly, with 24-hr
directional counts taken on at least three days during the week ( Tues, Wed, Thurs) and also
on Saturday and Sunday to represent the weekend.
Coverage Counts. These counts are used to estimate ADT, using expansion factors
developed from control counts. The study area is usually divided into zones that have similar
traffic characteristics. At least one coverage count station is located in each zone. A 24-hr non
directional weekday count is taken at least once every 4 years at each coverage station. It
tells changes in area wide traffic characteristics.
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Adjustment of Periodic Counts
Expansion factors, used to adjust period counts, are determined either from
continuous count stations or from control count stations. Hourly, daily, and monthly
expansion factors can be determined using data obtained at continuous count
stations.
Hourly Expansion Factors (HEF)
These factors are used to expand counts of duration shorter than 24-hr to 24-hr
volumes by multiplying the hourly volumes for each hour during the count period
by the HEF for that hour and finding the mean of these products.
HEF=
MEF= AADT
ADT for particular month
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Adjustment of Periodic Counts
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Adjustment of Periodic Counts
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Adjustment of Periodic Counts
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Adjustment of Periodic Counts
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Adjustment of Periodic Counts
Solution
24-hr volume for Tuesday = ( 400x29)+(535x22.05)+(650x18.80)+(710x17.10)+(650x18.52)
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= 11,959
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Presentation of Volume Data
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Presentation of Volume Data
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Speed Studies
•Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed zones,
speed
limits and passing restrictions.
•Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices, such as a variable message
signs at work zones.
•Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programmes such as the use of radar
guns.
•Evaluate and determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics such
as
radii of horizontal curves and lengths of vertical curves.
•Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through the analysis of crash data
for different speed characteristics.
•Determine speed trends
•Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid
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Manual Method of Measuring
Spot Speed
The main manual method used is the Direct timing procedure .
Two reference points are marked on the pavement at a suitable distance apart and
an observer starts and stops an accurate stop watch as a vehicle crosses these
two marks. From the known distance and the measured time intervals speeds are
calculated.
The disadvantage of this method is errors due to the parallax effect. Parallax is a
displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed along two
different lines of sight. 2
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Manual Method of Measuring
Spot Speed
A simple device called Enoscope eliminates the parallax effect that creeps in
when the direct readings are taken by one observer.
The instrument bends the line of sight of the observer so that it is perpendicular to
the path of the vehicle.
The stop watch is started as soon as the vehicle passes the first reference point
and is stopped as soon as it passes the observer.
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Automatic Method of Measuring
Spot Speed
Automatic methods can be categorized under;
1. Road detectors
2. Radar guns
3. Photographic and video camera
Road Detectors
They can be categorized into pneumatic road tubes and inductive loops. They
can also be used to collect volume data apart from speeds. The advantage of the
detector meters is that human errors are considerably reduced. The following
disadvantages
are associated with them;
1. The devices are expensive
2. Where pneumatic tubes are used, they are rather conspicuous and may,
therefore affect driver behaviour, resulting in a distortion of the speed
distribution.
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Automatic Method of Measuring
Spot Speed
Radar Guns
They work on the principle that when a signal is transmitted onto a moving vehicle,
the change in frequency between the transmitted signal and the reflected signal is
proportional to the speed of the moving vehicle.
Average Speed : This is the arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds ( which
is the sum of all spot speeds divided by the number of recorded speeds. It is given
by ;
Median: This is the speed at the middle value in a series of spot speeds that are
arranged in ascending order. 50% of the speed values will be greater than the
median; 50% will be lesser than the median
Modal Speed: This is the speed value that occurs most frequently in a sample of
spot speeds.
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