Unifying Concepts of Animal

Structure and Function

Unit 5; Chapter 21

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Biochem
Cell Biology
Biochem
Cell Biology
Genetics
Course Molecular Biology
Outline

Anatomy & physiology

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 CHAPTER CONTENTS

1.The structural Organization of Animals

2.Exchanges with the External Environment
3.Regulating the Internal Environment

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

1. THE STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS

– Individual cells are grouped into tissues,

– Tissues combine to form organs （器官） ,

– Organs are organized into organ systems,

– Organ systems make up the entire organism.

 Structural Hierarchy
Cellular Level: in the Human Body
Muscle cell

Tissue Level:
Cardiac muscle （心肌）

Organ Level:
Heart Organism Level
(Whole Body Level):
Multiple organ
systems
functioning
System Level: together
Circulatory system
“Form Fits Function”

• Analyzing a biological structure usually will

give us clues about

– What it does ?

– How it works ?
 “Form Fits Function”

(b) At the organ level

(a) At the organism level

(c) At the cellular level

 “Form Fits Function”

• Anatomy versus Physiology:

– Anatomy （解剖学） is the study of the

structure of an organism’s parts.
– Physiology （生理性） is the study of the
function of those parts.
Tissues （组
织）
• The cell is the basic unit of all living organisms.

• In almost all animals, including humans, cells

are grouped into tissues.
– A tissue is an integrated group of similar cells
that jointly perform a specific function.
– Animals have 4 main categories of tissue:
Epithelial Tissue （上皮组织） , Connective
Tissue （结缔组织） , Muscle Tissue, and
Nervous Tissue.
(1) Epithelial Tissue （上皮组
织）
• Epithelial tissue, also known as epithelium,
– covers the surface of the body, and

– lines organs and cavities within the body.

• Cells of epithelial tissues

– are tightly linked together,

– form a protective barrier, and

– continuously renewed.
Some examples of
organs lined with
epithelial tissue:

Heart
Lung
Stomach
Small intestine
Epithelial
Large intestine cells
Epithelial tissue
Urinary bladder （膀胱）
lining esophagus （食道）

Epithelial tissue
lining small intestine
Tissue Layers of the Small
Intestine (an Organ)

Small intestine
(cut open)

Epithelial tissue

Connective tissue
(containing blood
and lymph vessels （淋巴管） )

Smooth muscle （平滑肌）

tissue (two layers)
Epithelial
Connective tissue tissue
(2) Connective Tissue （结缔组织）

• Connective tissues have a sparse population of

cells in an extracellular matrix （细胞外间质）
consisting of a web of protein fibers within a
uniform foundation that may be liquid, jellylike,
or solid.
• The structure of connective tissue is correlated
with its functions:
– to bind (connect), and

– to support other tissues.

Different Types of Connetive Tissues

(a) Loose (b) Adipose

connective tissue 疏松结缔组织
tissue 脂肪组织

(c) Blood

(d) Fibrous
connective tissue

(f) Bone (e) Cartilage 软骨

 Connective Tissue

• Loose connective tissue Loose connective tissue

(under the skin)
– is the most widespread
connective tissue,
Cell
– binds epithelia to
underlying tissues, and Collagen
fiber
– holds organs in place. 胶原纤维
 Connective Tissue
• Adipose tissue
– stores fat, Adipose tissue
– stockpiles energy,
and
– pads and insulates Fat
droplets
the body.
Connective Tissue

• Blood
– is a connective Blood
tissue and White blood cells
(WBC)
– contains red
and white Red blood cells
blood cells (RBC)
suspended in a
Plasma
liquid called
plasma （血浆） .
Connective Tissue

• Fibrous
connective tissue
Fibrous connective tissue
– has a dense (forming a tendon)
matrix of
Cell nucleus
collagen and
– forms tendons
（肌腱） and
ligaments （韧
带） .
Collagen fibers
Connective Tissue
• Cartilage ( 软骨 )
– is strong but flexible,
Cartilage
– has no blood vessels, so it (at the end of a bone)
heals very slowly,
– functions as a flexible,
boneless skeleton, and Cells

– forms the shock-absorbing

pads that cushion the ends Matrix
of bones including the
vertebrae （脊椎） of the
spinal column （脊柱） .
Connective Tissue

• Bone
– is a rigid connective
Bone
tissue and
– has a matrix of collagen
fibers hardened with
deposits of calcium Matrix
salts.
Cells
(3) Muscle Tissue

• Muscle tissue
– is the most abundant tissue in most animals,

– consists of bundles of long, thin, cylindrical

cells called muscle fibers, and
– has specialized proteins arranged into a
structure that contracts when stimulated by a
signal from a nerve.
 Three Types of Muscle Tissue

(a) Skeletal muscle

(b) Cardiac muscle

（心肌）

(c) Smooth muscle

（平滑肌）
Muscle Tissue (Skeletal Muscle)

• Skeletal muscle （骨骼

Unit of Muscle
肌） is muscle fiber
contraction (cell)
– attached to bones by
tendons （肌腱） ,
– responsible for
voluntary movements,
– striated because the Nuclei
contractile proteins
form a banded pattern.
Muscle Tissue (Cardiac Muscle)

• Cardiac muscle is
– found only in heart Junction between
two cells
tissue,
Muscle
– composed of cells fiber
that are branched
Nucleus
and striated,
– involuntary, and
– responsible for the
contraction of the
heart.
Muscle Tissue (Smooth muscle)

• Smooth muscle is
– named for its lack of Muscle fiber Nucleus
obvious stripes,
– found in the walls of
various organs such as
intestines and blood
vessels,
– involuntary.
(4) Nervous Tissue

• Nervous tissue
– makes communication of sensory information
possible,
– is found in your brain and spinal cord （骨髓） ,
and
– consists of a network of neurons.

• The basic unit of nervous tissue is the neuron

（神经元） , or nerve cell.
Nervous Tissue
Brain
Spinal cord
Signal-receiving Cell body
extensions

Nerve
Signal-
transmitting
extension
Organs and Organ Systems

• An organ consists of two or more tissues

packaged into one working unit that performs a
specific function.
• Examples include the heart, liver, stomach,
brain, and small intestines.
• Organ systems are teams of organs that work
together and perform vital body functions.
 Digestive System:
Breaks down food
and absorbs
nutrients Mouth

Esophagus （食道）

Liver

Stomach
Large intestine

Small intestine

Lecture 14: Chapter 22 Anus （肛门）

Circulatory System:
Transports substances
throughout body

Heart

Blood vessels

Lecture 15: Chapter 23

 Respiratory System:
exchanges O2 and CO2
between blood and air
Nasal cavity （鼻腔）
Pharynx （咽） Larynx （喉）

Trachea （气管）
Bronchus （支气管）

Lung

Lecture 15: Chapter 23

Lymphatic （淋巴） and Immune System:
Defends against disease

Thymus （胸腺）

Spleen （脾脏）

Lymph nodes （淋巴结）

Lymphatic
vessels

Lecture 16: Chapter 24

Endocrine System （内分泌系统） :
Secretes hormones
Hypothalamus （下丘脑）
Pituitary gland （脑垂体）
Parathyroid gland （甲状旁腺）
Thyroid gland （甲状腺）
Adrenal gland （肾上腺）
Pancreas （胰腺） Ovary （卵巢）
(female)

Testis （睾丸） (male)

Lecture 17: Chapter 25

Reproductive system:
Produces gametes
and offspring
Lecture 18: Chapter 26

Seminal vesicles
（精囊）
Prostate gland
（前列腺）
Oviduct （输卵管） Vas deferens
Ovary （输精管）
Uterus Penis （阴茎）
Urethra
Vagina （阴道）

Testis
Nervous System:
Processes sensory Brain
information Sense organ (ear)
and controls
responses Spinal cord （骨髓）

Nerves

Lecture 19: Chapter 27

 Muscular System:
Moves the body

Skeletal muscles （骨骼肌）

Lecture 19: Chapter 27

Urinary System （泌尿系统） :
Rids body of
certain wastes
Kidney

Urinary
Ureter （尿管） bladder （膀胱）
Urethra （尿道）
Integumentary System:
Protects body
皮肤系统 Hair

Skin
Nail
Skeletal System: Bone
Supports body and
anchors muscles
Cartilage （软骨）
 2. EXCHANGES WITH THE EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT

• Animals use three organ systems to exchange materials

with the external environment:
1. Digestive,
2. Respiratory, and
3. Urinary.
Complex animals have evolved extensively-folded or branched
internal surfaces that maximize surface area for exchange with
the immediate environment.
The Branched Surface Area of the Human Lung
EXCHANGES WITH THE EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT

• The circulatory system

– connects to nearly every organ system,

– transports needed materials from the

environment to the body’s tissues, and
– carries waste away.
Exchange External environment
Mouth CO2
between the Food O2
external Animal
environment
Respiratory
and the Digestive o od
Bl system
internal system
Interstitial
environment Heart fluid
of complex
Nutrients
animals Circulatory
system

Body cells

Urinary
system
Anus
Unabsorbed matter Metabolic waste products
(feces) (such as urine)
 3. REGULATING THE INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT

• Animals can adjust to a changing environment.

External Animal’s internal

environment environment

HOMEOSTATIC
MECHANISMS

Large external changes Small internal changes

Homeostasis （内稳态）
• Homeostasis is the body’s ability to stay
relatively unchanged even when the world
around it changes.
• Interstitial fluid （组织液） is a liquid that
– fills the spaces between cells, and

– exchanges nutrients and wastes with

microscopic blood vessels called capillaries （毛
细血管） .
Negative and Positive Feedback

• Most mechanisms of homeostasis depend on a

principle called negative feedback （负反馈） ,
– in which the results of a process inhibit that
same process,
– such as a thermostat that turns off a heater
when room temperature rises to the set-point.
 Response:
Heating
stops

Room Stimulus:
Room Thermostat
temperature (control center)
drops temperature
is above set point turns heater off

Set point:
Room temperature
20°C (68°F)

Room Stimulus:
temperature Room Thermostat
rises temperature (control center)
is below set point turns heater on

Response:
Heating
starts
Negative and Positive Feedback

• Less common is positive feedback,

– in which the results of a process intensify that
same process,
– such as uterine contractions during childbirth.
 Thermoregulation

• Humans have homeostatic mechanisms that aid

in thermoregulation, which can

– cool the body

– heat the body.

Thermoregulation

• Fever
– is an abnormally high internal body
temperature and
– usually indicates an ongoing fight against
infection （感染） .
 Skin Response:
1. Blood
vessels dilate
Sweat 2. Sweat is
gland produced

Body Stimulus:
temperature Body
temperature Control center
drops
in brain activates
is above set point cooling
mechanisms

Set point:
Body temperature
near 37°C (98.6°F)

Control center
Stimulus: in brain activates
Body Body warming
temperature temperature mechanisms
rises is below set point

Skin Response:
1. Blood vessels
constrict
2. Person shivers
3. Metabolic rate
increases
 Methods of thermoregulation in animals
Physiological Adaptations
(such as panting, shivering （颤抖） , and sweating)

Panting （喘气）
 Behavioral Adaptations
(such as bathing, basking, hibernating （蛰伏 ), and migrating)

Bathing
Anatomical Adaptations
(such as hair, fat, and feathers)

Fat

Hair
Evolution Connection:
Adaptations for Thermoregulation

• Animals regulate their body temperatures

using adaptations that are
– anatomical,

– physiological, and/or

– behavioral.
Evolution Connection:
Adaptations for Thermoregulation

• A major anatomical adaptation in mammals

and birds is insulation, consisting of
– hair (fur), feathers, or fat layers.

• Some adaptations are physiological, such as

– changes in metabolic rate, shivering, panting
and sweating.
 Osmoregulation

• Living cells depend on a precise balance of

– water and

– solutes (dissolved substances).

• Osmoregulation （渗透调节） is the control of the gain

or loss of
– Water, and

– dissolved solutes, such as the ions (e.g., NaCl, other

salts).
Osmoregulation

• Osmoconformers （变渗动物）
– have internal and external environments with
similar solute concentrations, and
– include most marine invertebrates.

• Osmoregulators （渗透调节动物）
– actively regulate their water loss or gain, and

– include freshwater animals, most marine

vertebrates, and all land animals.
Osmoconformer Osmoregulator
Homeostasis in the Urinary System

• The human urinary system

– plays a central role in homeostasis,

– forms and excretes waste-carrying urine, and

– regulates the amount of water and solutes in

body fluids.
Homeostasis in the Urinary System

• In humans, the two kidneys

– are the main processing centers, and

– contain many fine tubes called tubules （细

管） and an intricate network of capillaries.
Homeostasis in the Urinary System

• As blood circulates through the kidneys,

– a fraction of it is filtered, and

– the filtrate enters the kidney tubules.

• Filtrate contains
– valuable substances that need to be reclaimed (such
as water and glucose), and
– substances to be eliminated, such as urea （尿素） .
Homeostasis in the Urinary System

• The human urinary system includes

– the circulatory system,

– the kidneys,

– nephrons （肾单元） , the functional units within

the kidneys, and
– the urinary bladder, where urine is stored.
Anatomy of the Human Urinary System

Renal artery (red)

and renal vein
(blue)

Kidney

Ureter

Urinary
bladder

Urethra

(a) Urinary
system
 Anatomy of the Human Urinary System - Kidney

Branch of
renal artery
（肾动脉）

Branch of
renal vein
（肾静脉）

Ureter

To ureter

(b) Kidney (c) A nephron and collecting duct

Homeostasis in the Urinary System

• Nephrons
– consist of a tubule and its associated blood
vessels, and
– more than a million in a kidney.
Nephron and Collecting Duct

Filter
Tubule

Branch of
renal artery
Collecting
duct
Branch of
renal vein

To ureter
Homeostasis in the Urinary System

• Nephrons perform four key functions.

1. Filtration, forcing water and other small

molecules
from the blood to form filtrate

2. Reabsorption of water and valuable solutes back

into the blood

3. Secretion of certain substances, such as ions and

drugs, into the filtrate

4. Excretion （排泄） of urine （尿） from the

kidneys to the outside
 Blood

Capillaries Filtration
Water and small molecules
enter the tubule.
Tubule

Reabsorption
Water and valuable solutes
are returned to the blood.

Secretion
Specific substances are
removed from the blood.

Excretion
Urine Urine exits the body.
 Filtration Reabsorption Secretion

Renal artery
Filtrate

Renal vein
Capillaries

Tubule

Excretion
Urine
Homeostasis in the Urinary System
• Kidney failure can be caused by
– injury,

– illness, or

– prolonged use of pain relievers （镇痛药）

(including over-the-counter medicines such as
aspirin), alcohol, or other drugs.
• One option for treatment of kidney failure is
dialysis （透析） , filtration of blood by a machine
that mimics the action of a nephron.
Line from artery （动脉） A dialysis machine
to apparatus

Pump Tubing made of a

selectively permeable
membrane

Dialyzing
Line from solution
apparatus
to vein （静脉）

Fresh dialyzing Used dialyzing

solution solution (with urea
and excess salts)
The Process of Science:
How Does a Python Warm Her Eggs?

• Observation: A female Burmese python

incubating eggs
– wraps her body around them,

– raises her body temperature, and

– frequently contracts the muscles in her coils.

Oxygen consumed by a Burmese python
as it constricts its muscles

120

100
(mL O2/hr) per kg
O2 consumption

80

60

40

20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Contractions per minute
The Process of Science:
How Does a Python Warm Her Eggs?

• Hypothesis: The muscle contractions elevate

the snake’s body temperature.
• Experiment: A python and her eggs were
monitored to measure
– the python’s muscle contractions and

– her oxygen uptake.

 The Process of Science:
How Does a Python Warm Her Eggs?

• Results: The python’s oxygen consumption

increased
– when the temperature in the chamber
decreased and
– as she increased the rate of muscle contraction.