ENGINE OPERATION

AND CHECKS
Engine Operation And Checks ( Lesson-64)

There are many instances when ground personnel other than

pilots are required to operate a gas turbine engine. Some of these
instances are as follows:
1. To duplicate a flight crew-reported discrepancy for
troubleshooting;
2. To perform a basic engine or engine system checkout
after maintenance;
3. To move an aircraft from one maintenance location to
another;
4. To taxi-check an aircraft system.
A. Safety Precautions
The engine operator must be thoroughly familiar with the flight line
safety precautions previously mentioned for engine trimming.

This includes the use of ear defenders for hearing protection, awareness
of inlet and exhaust area hazards for protection of both personnel and
equipment, and knowledge of adverse weather restrictions which, if
neglected, could result in poor engine performance or possible engine
damage.
Complete familiarity with the manufacturer's checklists and
maintenance manuals is a must for safe and accurate performance
testing.
B. Engine Runup of Turbojet and Turbofan Engines

Each particular aircraft will have a very specific checklist provided

by the manufacturer. The general procedures for operating a turbine
engine include, but are not necessarily limited to, the following items
1. Normal Operating Procedures
a. Prior To Engine Operation
1) Remove Inlet and Exhaust covers, clear the inlet and
exhaust areas of personnel and equipment, and clear the ramp
of debris which could cause foreign object damage to the
engine;
2) Perform a walk-around Inspection of the aircraft to ensure
complete security of necessary aircraft and engine systems;

3) Ensure servicing of fuel and oil is adequate for the run-up

intended; 4) Connect Ground Power Unit to aircraft if required.
b. When First Entering the Aircraft, Ensure The Following

1) Engine Master Switch - OFF;

2) Landing Gear Handle position - WHEELSDOWN;
3) Seat and Brake Pedals - ADJUSTED;
4) Generator switches - OFF;
5) Power lever - OFF, or Fuel Control shutoff ­OFF (Engines with
thrust reversers require use of a separate shutoff control);
6) Starter and Ignition - OFF;
7) Aircraft Systems - SAFE FOR ENGINEOPERATION
c. To Start Engine
1) Master Switch - ON;
2) Select Battery or External Power - ON;
3) Fuel Valves - ON (Aircraft system);
4) Fuel Boost - ON (Aircraft system);
5)Starter ON Starter,ignition,and fuel are often time-sequenced);
6) Ignition - ON (Usually between 5 and 10% RPM);
7) Power Lever - OPEN (To approximate idle position) or fuel
shutoff - OPEN. (Allow 10 to 20 seconds to light-off, then abort
start);
8) Ignition and Starter - OFF (Below idle);
9) Generator - Normally on at this time.
d. Instrument Checks On Start Cycle
1) Exhaust Temperature - WITHIN LIMITS (Starting peak and
stabilized);
2) Engine Oil Pressure - WITHIN LIMITS;
3) Dual-Compressor Engines - Ensure a positive N1 Indication by
20% N2 speed.
e. Instrument Checks Stabilized At Idle
1) Percent RPM (Generally between 40% to 60%);
2) Exhaust Temperature (EGT, TIT, or ITT);
3) Fuel Flow;
4) Fuel Manifold Pressure;
5) Oil Temperature
6) Fuel Temperature;
7) Oil Pressure;
8) Vibration Amplitude (Large aircraft);
f. Typical High Power Checks
1) Engine Trim Check (EPR, Fan Speed or Engine Torque);
2) Acceleration and Deceleration time Check;
3) Compressor Bleed Valve and Variable vane Schedule Checks.
g. Taxi Procedure
Release brakes and move power lever forward as required for
RPM, thrust, and ground speed. Communication with the airport
control tower is often required before taxiing.
h. Normal Shutdown Procedure
I) Operate engine at prescribed speed for recommend­ed time
interval, usually idle or slightly above for 20-30 seconds. This
is done to stabilize component temperatures, to prevent engine
distortion, to prevent coking of oil on extremely hot surfaces,
and to scavenge the oil properly back to the oil tank.
2) Power Lever and/or Fuel Lever - OFF (with a quick motion
to the stop).
3) Fuel Boost - OFF.
4) Fuel Valves - OFF.
5) Generator, Battery, External Power - OFF.
6) Master switch - OFF.
2. Emergency Operating Procedures
a. Procedure for Engine Tailpipe Fire during Ground Start
I) Power lever and/or fuel lever - OFF.
2) Starter - Continue to crank to attempt to blow fire out.
3) Fire Extinguisher - ON (if needed) - A Freon based or carbon
dioxide extinguisher is preferred to avoid engine contamination.
4) Master Switch OFF, all other switches - OFF.
5) Troubleshoot Cause.
b. Procedure for Hot Start
I) Power Lever and/or Fuel Lever - OFF (if temperature attempts to
exceed the red line limit).
2) Master switch - OFF.
3) Troubleshoot Cause.
c. Procedure for Failure to Start
1) Power Lever and/or Fuel Lever OFF (if engine does not ignite
within the required time period, usually 10-20 seconds after fuel is
introduced to the engine).
2) Troubleshoot Cause.
NOTE: If the engine fails to start because fuel flow is terminated
inadvertently, DO NOT reopen fuel lever because a hot start will
more than likely result.
Allow 30-60 seconds for fuel to drain from the combustor. If
necessary, perform an engine purging procedure to clear the
engine of trapped fuel vapors. d. Engine Purging Procedure
I) Power - ON.
2) Power Lever and/or Fuel Lever - OFF.
3) Ignition - OFF (pull circuit breaker if necessary). 4) Starter - ON
(usually 15-20 seconds).
 
e. Emergency Shutdown Procedure
If engine continues to operate when the power lever or fuel lever is
moved to OFF, turn off fuel boost and aircraft fuel valves. The
engine will shut down from fuel starvation within 30-60 seconds.
This is an emergency \ procedure only because lubrication of the
fuel wetted components will cease and repeated shut downs in this
fashion will reduce fuel system service life. f. Flight RAM-Air
Starting Procedure

If an in-flight flameout occurs, the starter switch is placed in the

FLT START position. This bypasses the engine starter and allows
ignition only to occur. The engine (except at low airspeeds) motors
over sufficiently from ram air entering the engine inlet and
electrical ignition relights the mixture when fuel is reintroduced
into the combustor.
Checking the Gas Turbine Engine for Proper Operation

Checking the gas turbine engine for proper operation consists

primarily of reading engine instruments and then comparing the
observed values with those given by the man­ufacturer for specific
engine-operating conditions, atmo­spheric pressure, and
temperature.

Sudden throttle movements are to be avoided if possible in order

to prevent cracking at the leading and trailing edges of the turbine
blades.
 Good operating techniques are as follows:
1.Don't demand maximum power unless absolutely nec­essary. (See
Author's note.)
2.Start as fast as possible (high starter power) to eliminate high
temperatures for long periods of time.
3.Warm up and stabilize engine temperatures for a few minutes at
IDLE to prevent rubbing and other damage . Move the power
lever slowly and smoothly.
4.Operate at less than "limits" and save a lot of money.
5. Cool the engine with a run faster than IDLE for a minute. .
Calibrate the instruments for accurate readings.
 
[Author's Note: - Some aircraft operators are limit­ing the
maximum power to below the manufacturer's maximum rated
power in order to achieve extended reliability and engine life.]
Early-model gas turbines usually used rpm as the sole engine-
operating parameter to establish thrust, while many present-day
engines use EPR (engine pressure ratio) as the primary thrust
indicator. On a hot day, compressor rpm for a given thrust will be
higher than on a cold day
 
.Furthermore, a dirty or damaged compressor will reduce thrust for a
given rpm. EPR is used because it varies directly with thrust. It is the
ratio of the total pressure at the front of the compressor to the total
pressure at the rear of the turbine. The exhaust gas temperature is
never used for setting thrust, although it must be monitored to see
that temperature limits are not exceeded
Using EPR as the thrust indicator means that on a hot day it is quite
possible for the engine rpm to exceed 100 percent, and on a cold day,
desired thrust ratings may be reached at something less than 100
percent. Generally, thrust is set by adjusting the throttle to obtain a
predeter­mined EPR reading on the aircraft instrument,
 . The EPR value for given thrust settings will vary with ambient pres­
sure and temperature.

On the newer, high-bypass-ratio fan jets, such as the General Electric

TF39 and CF6 engines used on the Lockheed C5A and McDonnell
Douglas DC l0, respectively, the fan speed (see Fig. 19-2) is being
used as the primary method of setting power because the large fan
closely approximates the fixed-pitch propeller and because of the fact
that a large percentage of the total thrust is generated by the fan.
While on the Rolls-Royce RB.211 engine used on the Lockheed L-l
0 11 TriStar, the parameter used to indicate and manage thrust is the
integrated engine pressure ratio (IEPR).
This parameter is the integrated average of the fan and gas ­
generator exhaust pressures (weighted by their respective nozzle
areas) divided by the inlet total pressure.
Rolls-Royce feels that because IEPR is based on both the fan and
gas-generator exhaust pressure ratios, it is fundamentally related to
engine gross thrust, and that IEPR provides the most accurate
indication of engine thrust when considering thrust, engine
ambient temperature sensitivity, altitude, and velocity, and the
effect of engine component deterioration as compared to fan-speed
(N/1)' turbine gas temperature (TGT), fuel flow (Wf)' and gas-
generator pressure ratio (EPR).
Fuel flow (and therefore power) on the Pratt & Whitney 4000 series
engine is controlled by both EPR and rpm among other parameters.
Engine Ratings 
Turbojet and turbofan engines are rated by the number of pounds of
thrust they are designed to produce for
Takeoff
Maximum continuous. Maximum climb
Maximum cruise ratings 
The ratings for these operating conditions are published in the Engine
Model Specification for each model engine. Takeoff and maximum
continuous ratings, being the only two engine ratings subject to FAA
approval, are also defined in the FAA Type Certificate Data Sheet.
Engines installed in commercial aircraft are usually "part-throttle"
engines; that is, takeoff-rated thrust is obtained at throttle settings
below
  full-throttle position
"Part-throttle" engines are also referred to as being flat rated, due to
the shape of the takeoff thrust curves. Used for such engines. What
is actually meant by the term flat rating is perhaps best described by
comparing takeoff thrust set­tings on the military "full-throttle"
engines with the "partthrottle" commercial engines.
The "full-throttle" engine is adjusted under sea-level stan­dard (SL
Std.) conditions to produce full-rated thrust with the throttle in full
forward position. Ambient temperature changes occurring with the
throttle in full forward position will cause thrust level changes.
 Temperatures rising above the SL Std. 15°C will result in a
proportional thrust decrease, while at temperatures below standard,
thrust will increase, exceeding the rated level. For maximum
reliability, better hot day performance, and economy of operation,
commercial turbojet and turbofan engines are operated at the more
conservative "part-throttle" thrust levels, thus in effect making
them "flat-rated." A flat­rated engine is adjusted under sea-level
standard conditions to produce full-rated thrust with the throttle at
less than full for­ward position. When ambient temperature rises
above the SL Std. 15°C, rated thrust can still be maintained up to a
given temperature increase by advancing the throttle
 . The amount of throttle advance available to keep the thrust level
"flat rated" is determined by engine operating temperature limits. As
an example, the takeoff thrust of the General Electric CF6-6 high-
bypass turbofan engine is flat rated to sea-level standard day (15°C)
plus 16°C = 31°C, at which point thrust becomes EGT limited. Any
further increase in ambi­ent temperature will cause a proportional
decrease in thrust.
At ambient temperatures below SL Std., the thrust is held to the same
maximum value as for a hot day. In this manner a flat-rated engine can
produce a constant rated thrust over a wide range of ambient
temperatures without overworking the engine.
 
 
Compressor Wash or Field Cleaning ( Lesson-65)

When the rated thrust cannot be restored without exceed­ing

other engine limitations, the engine must either be field
cleaned or removed and sent to overhaul. Field cleaning is
accomplished by introducing a lignocellulose material into the
air inlet duct while the engine is operating. The cleaning
material, known as Carboblast-Jet Engine Type, is made by
crushing apricot pits or walnut hulls. Specific steps to follow in
cleaning any particular engine are to be found in the
maintenance instructions for that engine.
 These steps generally include blocking some lines and ports and
removing any equipment in the inlet duct that might be damaged by
the cleaning material.

The engine is then run at different speeds for stipulated periods

of time while the Carboblast compound is fed into the inlet duct.
After clean­ing, the installation must be returned to its original
configu­ration and the engine must be retrimmed.
 On some engines, cleaning is accomplished by using a washing
solution consisting of plain water or an emulsion of demineralized
water, kerosene, and other cleaning liquids such as Turco 4217.

This type of field cleaning is done either as a desalination wash

to remove salt deposits when operating in salt-laden air or as a
performance recovery wash to remove dirt and other deposits that
build up over a period of time depending on the environment.

After clean­ing, the engine may be motored with the starter or

run. The use of a water wash is not recommended after the use of a
dry chemical fire extinguisher.
 
Compressor and turbine wash.

As an engine oper­ates, deposits accumulate on the engine's internal

gas path components such as the compressor and turbine blades.
These deposits can accumulate to the point of deteriorating the
engine's performance.

To recover this performance loss, a type of compressor wash must

be performed to remove the baked-on salt, dirt, or other types of
contamina­tion deposits. Cleaning of the engine can be divided into
internal and external washing.
 Washing of the compressor section of the engine is accomplished
by injecting the applicable fluid into the engine's intake using either
an installed compressor wash ring or a hand-held wash wand.

This provides the engine with the correct flow of fluid in the form
of a spray.

Turbine washes are done in much the same manner except that the
wash tube is generally attached to the combustion section of the
engine.
Internal engine washing can be done by two methods: the motoring
wash and the running wash.

The motoring wash is generally done by turning the engine using

only the starter. This ensures that the wash fluid stays in a liquid
form. The engine is run up by the starter to between 10 and 25
percent rpm.
When the engine reaches about 5 percent rpm, the cleaning mixture
can be sprayed into the engine's intake as the engine continues to
accelerate.
Spraying should be stopped as the engine slows back down to about
5 percent rpm. Sometimes it is necessary to do a cleaning wash and a
rinse wash to remove the cleaning fluid.
 Before the internal wash is attempted, the compressor bleed air
and any other components that might become contaminated must be
closed off or isolated to prevent contamination. Starter limits must
also be adhered to so as to prevent over­heating and damaging of the
starter.

As a general rule, the starter should not be operated for more than
30 s, and the correct cool-down time should be observed between
runs. The engine's ignition must also be turned off during the
motoring runs.
 The running wash is performed with the engine running at idle
speed and the cleaning fluid mixture and the rinse solution injected
at the correct flow rate.

Some different types of internal engine washes are the

compressor performance recovery wash, the compressor
desalination wash, and the turbine desalination wash.

The engine's maintenance manual will list the proper fluids and
frequency of washes. In cold weather and in very contami­nated
environments, special frequency and fluids need to be used.
Gas Turbine Engine Inspections ( Lesson-66)
 
Because of the great variety of gas-turbine engines in exis­tence, no
attempt will be made in this text to give instruc­tions about
inspection and maintenance procedures for spe­cific engines.

We shall, however, examine some of the con­ditions common to the

majority of gas-turbine engines and provide information supplied
by manufacturers and opera­tors as examples of typical methods and
processes.
 Remember that a particular method or process approved for
one type of engine may not be satisfactory for another type of
engine.

It is essential, therefore, that all inspection and maintenance

practices be done in accordance with the manufacturer's and
operator's maintenance manuals.

The inspections established for gas-turbine engines fall into a

number of classifications and are dependent on the types of
operation to which the engines are subjected
 . For example, an airline whose routes are long will need an
inspection schedule different from a local-service airline for which
flights are short and takeoffs and landings are frequent.

Inspections and maintenance procedures are scheduled,

therefore, with consideration of the number of flight cycles an
engine has experienced as well as the total hours of engine
operation. A flight cycle is normally defined as one takeoff and
landing.
To illustrate the difference in the number of flight cycles which
may be imposed on an engine in different types of operation,
a commuter operation from Los Angeles to San Francisco
may be compared with an overseas flight to the Orient.

A commuter airplane may accumulate 12 h of oper­ation time

while completing 15 flight cycles.

On the other hand, a trans-Pacific flight to Hong Kong may

put 18 h of operation time on the engines while only three
flight cycles are completed.
 It is clear that the wear, erosion, and heat damage will be much
greater on the commuter airplane engines than it will for the trans-
Pacific engines.

Accordingly, inspection and maintenance operations will have to

be scheduled more often for the commuter airplane engines.

Periodic inspections are required after a given number of

operation hours, flight cycles, or a combination of both.
 These inspections may be classified as routine, minor, or major.
Scheduling of such inspections is established by the operator of the
aircraft in accordance with the results of operational experience.

In addition to the periodic inspections performed on a regular

basis, airlines often specify turnaround inspections, which may be
called "line checks" or "A checks."

Each air­line has its own classifications for inspections; the only
way for a person to know what is to be inspected and how it is to
be inspected is to get the information from the check sheet
furnished by the company
Routine Operational Inspections
A typical airline may designate standard service operations and
inspections by such names as "no. 1 service," "no. 2 service," "A"
check, and "B" check. These various opera­tions will include a
number of standard operations plus spe­cial operations as needed.

A no. I service may be performed by station personnel each time

the airplane lands or after several landings, depending on the
amount of time the aircraft is in flight. Usually the service will
include correction of critical log items as well as regular service
(fuel and resupply), plus a walk-around inspection.
 The walk-around inspection includes inspection of all items
which can be observed from the ground. The engine inspection at
this time includes a look at the engine inlet and fan, observation
of any fuel or oil leakage from engine pods, and an examina­tion
of the tail pipe and turbine section with a flashlight.

The no. 2 service may include the following engine related

items:
1. Review of the flight log and cabin log
2. Check of engine oil quantity
3. Visual inspection of the engines with cowls open
The "A" check discussed here is performed after approximately 100
h of operation. Inspections and service relating to the engines are as
follows:
1. Fill oil tanks. Enter in the inspection records the number of quarts
added for each engine.
2. Service the constant-speed drive (CSD) as required.
3. Check engine inlet, cowling, and pylon for damage. Check for
irregularities and exterior leakage.
4. Inspect the engine exhaust section for damage using a strong
inspection light. Note condition of rear turbine.
5. Check the thrust-reverser ejectors and reverser buck­ets for security
and damage.
 6. Check the reverser system, with ejectors extended, for cracks,
buckling, and damage.
The "B" check is more comprehensive than the "A" check; it
includes the following: 
1. Check engine nose cowl, inlet chamber, guide vanes, and first-
stage compressor blades using a strong inspection light.
2. Check engine, installations, midsection, and cowl­ing. Spray
cowling latches with approved lubricant.
3. Check the fire extinguisher indicator disks.
4. Perform oil filtering in accordance with mainte­nance manual.
5. Remove oil screen, and check it for carbon and metal.
6. Install oil screen and torque screen-cover nuts to proper value
(approximately 25 to 30 in. lb [2.83 to 3.39 N. m]).

7. Check oil quantity within 2 h after engine shutdown and add

approved oil as required. Enter oil added on work ­control record.

8. Check CSD oil. Add approved oil as required but do not

overfill.

9. Check starter oil. Add approved oil to level of filler port. Make a
record of oil added.
10. Check the ignition system as follows
a. Move four air-bleed switches on the air-condi­tioning panel to
OFF.
b. Move start lever to IDLE.
c. Move start-control switch on overhead panel to FLIGHT
position.
d. See that the igniter at the no. 7 combustion cham­ber is firing.
e. Return controls to the OFF position.
f. Move start-control switch to GROUND position
g. Move start lever to the START position.
h. Ensure that the igniters are firing by use of an approved tester.
i. Return controls to the OFF position.
j. Close engine cowling and check security of latch­es and
inspection plates.

In checking the ignition systems of a modern gas­ turbine engine, it

is important that body contact not be made with the high-energy
output. The voltage is such that a flow of current through the body
could be fatal.
11. Check reversers and deflector doors as follows:

a. Place reverser in reverse-thrust position. Install lock clamps and

warning tags on reverse levers.
b. Using a strong inspection light, check the tail pipe and fairing,
the reverser clamshells, the turbine exit area, outlet guide vanes,
and rear turbine blades.
c. Check deflector doors and fittings for cracks.
d. Check for delamination of the door inner and outer skin using
an inspection light and testing by hand.
e. Check the inner and outer skin for dents, cracks, and punctures.
f. Check the deflector door forward link to the sup­port pivot bolt
for tightness. The bolt should not turn by hand.
g. Check the bolts which secure the forward link support assembly
to the reverser structure with a wrench.
h. Check the deflector drive pivot bolt. It should not turn by hand.
i. Check the deflector doorstops for excessive loose­ness and
lubricate door-link and rod end bearings. 
These notes are given only as examples of common inspection
procedures and are not necessarily appropriate for any particular
aircraft. Remember that all aircraft and engine combinations have
specific procedures that have been established and approved. The
approved procedures should be followed in all cases.
Gas Turbine Engine Non Routine Inspections ( Lesson-67)
 
During the operation of a gas-turbine engine, various events may
occur which cause the engine to require an immediate special
inspection to determine whether the engine has been damaged and
what corrective actions must be taken.

Among some of the events which may cause the engine to require
special inspections are foreign,-object ingestion, bird ingestion,
ice ingestion, over limit operation (temperature and rpm),
excessive "G" loads, and any other event that could cause internal
or external engine damage
 Nonroutine inspections require the same techniques as those used
for daily and periodic inspections.

These techniques include unaided visual inspection, inspection

with lights, use of magnifiers, application of fluorescent or dye
penetrants, use of a borescope or videoscope, and use of
radiography techniques.

Usually the maintenance manual for the engine will specify

which technique is the most effective for a particular inspection.
a) Borescope, Fiberscope, and Electronic Imaging.

The borescope was used for many years as a device for examining
the insides of cylinder bores on reciprocating engines and is now
extensively used on turbine engines. The borescope is a rigid
instrument that may be com­pared with a small periscope.

At one end is an eyepiece with one or more lenses attached to

the light-carrying tube. At the end of the tube are a mirror, a lens,
and strong light. The tube is inserted through engine borescope
ports locat­ed in the engine case at points necessary to allow for
exam­ination of all critical areas inside the engine.
 The ports are normally closed (with removable plugs). One type of
borescope system is shown in Fig.

When borescope inspections are to be performed, the technician

should identify the plugs as they are removed to be sure that they are
reinstalled in the same ports.

Upon reinstallation, the threads and pressure faces of the plugs

should be lightly coated with an anti seize compound such as MIL-T-
5544 or its equivalent.
 A variation of the rigid borescope is the fiberscope, which is shown
in Fig. The flexible fiberscope usually has a controllable bending
section near the tip so that the observer can direct the scope after it
has been inserted into an engine inspection port.

This bending action, allows the fiberscope to scan the area inside
the engine once inside the port. Many times it is necessary to use the
fiberscope to inspect around comers inside the engine when no
inspection entry port is available to allow a direct line of sight .
 Correct identification of cracks, stress, and corrosion is critical
during maintenance inspections. Inspectors often find it difficult to
differentiate between an actual defect and an unclear image.

A new imaging technique, electronic imaging, is able to produce

sharp, true-color, magnified images that can be seen on a video
monitor.

The videoprocessor receives the signal, digitizes it, assembles it,

and outputs it directly to a video monitor, video tape recorder, or
computer enhancement equipment.
 Video imaging lends itself to high-quality videotape and
photographic documentation. The images can be viewed by several
inspectors at different locations via multiple video monitors.
 
b) Inspections for Overlimit Operation

Even though technicians and flight crews take every precaution

possible to prevent overlimit operation of engines, such operation
sometimes occurs. Often the cause is a malfunction of the engine
fuel control or a malfunction in the engine. In any case, when
overlimit operation does occur, it is necessary to perform certain
inspections to determine what damage may have resulted.
 At starting, the most critical parameter for the engine is EGT.
The technician or crew member starting the engine must watch
the EGT gage carefully. As soon as lightoff occurs, there is a
rapid rise in EGT; but if all systems are working properly, the
EGT should not exceed limits.
If it does, the person starting the engine should immediately
retard the start lever to reduce fuel flow to the combustion
chamber.

The technician who starts a gas-turbine engine should be

familiar with the operating limitations. Figure 18-13 is a
temperature-limit chart for starting a large, high-bypass engine .
 Note that any temperature above 675°C [1247°F] is cause for
special attention. Temperatures that fall in area A require special
inspections, and temperature-time values that fall in area C are
cause for engine overhaul.
After an engine has been started and the operation is sta­bilized
at ground idle, higher temperatures can be permitted during
taxiing and preparation for takeoff.
The chart in Fig. 18-14 shows temperature-time limitations for
opera­tions other than starting. The charts in Fig. 18-13 and 18-14
are applicable to one particular engine only and are not typical of
all engine limitations.
 If a gas-turbine engine has been operated above the lim­its set
for EGT but at a level not high enough to call for removal and
overhaul, a borescope inspection is usually called for. An external
visual inspection of the hot section of the engine should also be
made.
In this inspection, the hot section of the engine is checked for
indications of burnt­hrough or metal distortion due to excessive
heat. If such indications are found, the section must be
disassembled for further inspection and repair.

When borescope inspections are called for after operation at

excessive temperatures, the following are inspected:
1. Combustion chamber and liner assembly to deter­mine if cracks and
burned areas exceed those permissible as specified by the
manufacturer.
2. Fuel nozzles for excessive carbon buildup or plugged orifices.
3. First-stage high-pressure turbine (HPT) nozzle for cracks, burned
areas, warping, and plugged cooling-air pas­sages. Serviceable limits
for defects specified in the maintenance manual must be met.
4. Second-stage HPT nozzles for defects as listed.
5. HPT rotor for cracks, tears, nicks, dents, and metal loss. Cracks in
the turbine blades are cause for removal and replacement.
Dents and nicks within certain limits may be permitted in the second-
stage blades, as specified by the manufacturer.
6. Turbine midframe liner for cracks, nicks, dents, bums, bulges, and
gouges. Limitations for these defects are specified by the
manufacturer. Bulges associated with heat discoloration are cause for
rejection.
7. First-stage low-pressure turbine (LPT) nozzle for cracks, nicks,
dents, burns, etc., as for other turbine sec­tions.
8. LPT stator assembly as above.
9. LPT rotor assembly as above. No cracks are permit­ted in any
turbine blades. Limited dents and nicks are allowed.
c) Over Speed Inspection  
Over speed inspection for a typ­ical high-bypass fan engine is
primarily concerned with rotating assemblies. One manufacturer
specifies the follow­ing inspections if the fan section has been
operated at speeds from 116 to 120 percent rpm:
 
1. Check the fan rotor for freedom of rotation.
2. Check the first-stage fan shroud for excessive rub. 3. Inspect the
low-pressure compressor with a borescope.
4. Inspect the inlet and the exhaust nozzles for particles.
5. Inspect all four stages of the LPT with a borescope for blade and
vane damage. Inspect the fourth-stage blades through the exhaust
nozzle.
 If the fan speed has exceeded 120 percent, the fan rotor, fan mid
shaft, and LPT rotor must be removed, disassem­bled, and inspected
in accordance with instructions.
If the core-engine rotor (high-pressure compressor and high-pressure
turbine) has been operated at speeds from 107 to 108.5 percent, the
following inspections are speci­fied:
 
1. Inspect the exhaust nozzle for particles

2. Inspect the core compressor with a borescope for blade and vane
damage.

3. With a borescope, inspect the HPT for blade damage

 
If the core engine rotor has been operated above 108.5 percent, the
engine must be removed, disassembled, and inspected according to
instructions.
 
 
Foreign-Object Damage (FOD) ( Lesson-68)

Foreign-object dam­age to a gas-turbine engine may consist of

anything from small nicks and scratches to complete disablement or
destruction of the engine. The flight crew of an aircraft may or may
not be aware that FOD has occurred during a flight. If damage is
substantial, however, it will be indicated by vibration and by
changes in the engine's normal operating parameters. Damage to the
compressors or turbines usually results in an increase in EGT, a
decrease in engine pressure ratio (EPR), and a change in the rpm
ratio between the core engine and the fan section(N2/N1 ratio).
When FOD has occurred, the inspections required depend on the
nature of the foreign object or objects. If an external inspection
indicates substantial damage to the fan section or to inlet guide
vanes, the engine must be removed and overhauled. If the damage
to the forward sections of the engine is slight, a borescope
inspection of the interior of the engine may determine that it is
unnecessary to remove the engine.
 Damage to vanes, fan blades, and compressor blades can be
repaired if it does not exceed certain limits specified by the
manufacturer. If the engine operates nor­mally after repairs are made,
it can be placed back in service.
 
e) Fan Blade Shingling
Fail blade shingling is the over­lapping of the midspan shrouds of
the fan blades. When the blades of a rotating fan encounter
resistance which forces them sideways an appreciable distance,
shingling will take place.
Shingling can be caused by engine stall, bird strike, FOD, or engine
overspeed, in which case the fan must be inspected at both the
upper and lower surfaces of the midspan shrouds for chafing,
scoring, and other damage adjacent to the interlock surfaces. All
blades that are over­lapped or show indications of overlapping must
be removed and inspected according to the appropriate manual. No
cracks are permitted in the fan blades. Blade tips are examined for
curl, and the lightening holes are checked for cracks and
deformation.
 Additional inspections in the fan area include inspection of the
abradable material for damage due to rubbing of fan blade tips and
inspection of the fan-speed sensor head for damage due to blade
contact.
f) Hot Section Inspections

A hot section inspection is needed to determine the integri­ty of the

components in the hot section of the engine. The hot section of the
engine consists of the combustion section (burner cans or liners),
turbine inlet guide vanes, turbine wheels, and related parts
Hot section inspection intervals vary widely depending on TBO
(time between overhauls) and engine service experience. Generally,
hot section inspections are performed on either a "time-in-service"
basis or an "on-condition" basis. When engine parameters start to
deteriorate, this is also evidence that a hot section inspection is
needed. Whenever engine operational condi­tions dictate that an
inspection is needed, it should be per­formed regardless of the time in
service. Such conditions include engine overspeed, sudden stoppage,
lighting strike, loss of oil, or unusual noises .
 An operational performance check (record of engine parameters)
should be made before and after the hot section inspection to
determine the improvement in engine performance.
In order to perform a hot section inspection, the engine will have to
be somewhat disassembled. However, before this can be done, parts
of the ignition system and fuel sys­tem will need to be disassembled
and removed from the engine. Proper references and special tools
needed should always be obtained before the disassembly
procedure begins
The condition of the engine's components as well as certain
clearances and dimensions, which are outlined in the disassembly
and inspection sections of the maintenance manual, may need to
be recorded during the disassembly phase of the inspection.
During the inspection phase, the condition of integral engine
components such as the turbine and combustion chamber sections
will be closely examined and their airworthiness evaluated
 At this time, faulty parts are rejected and replaced or sent to a
certified repair station for reworking. During engine reassembly, it
is critical that the manufacturer's instructions be carefully followed.
All clearances and torque values must be observed. After com­
pletion of the reassembly phase, all paperwork should be
completed, and a complete inventory of all tools and mate­rials
should be made.
Gas turbine engine maintenance ( Lesson-69)
 
It is not practical (or perhaps even possible) to describe in a
note all the practices and procedures for the repair and
maintenance of all gas-turbine engines; these procedures vary
from engine to engine and are covered in the various manuals
available for each particular engine and its acces­sories. However,
it is worthwhile to describe a few of the typical repair and
maintenance practices which may be employed by the technician
under certain conditions.
 Maintenance covers both the work that is required to maintain
an engine and its systems in an airworthy condi­tion while it is
installed in an aircraft (on-wing or line maintenance) and the work
that is required to return an engine to airworthy condition once it
has been removed from an aircraft (overhaul or shop maintenance).

On-wing maintenance falls into two basic categories: scheduled

maintenance and unscheduled maintenance.
 
Scheduled Maintenance
Scheduled maintenance includes the periodic and recurring
inspections that must be made in accordance with the engine
section of the aircraft maintenance schedule. These checks range
from inspections which do not entail opening of cowls to more
elaborate checks within specified time limits, usually calculated
in aircraft flying hours or cycles
 A policy of continuous maintenance, whereby a check are
carried out progressively and as convenient within given time
limits, rather than at specific aircraft check peri­ods, has been
widely adopted. With the introduction of con­dition monitoring
devices of increased efficiency and relia­bility, a number of
traditionally accepted scheduled checks may become
unnecessary.
Unscheduled Maintenance
Unscheduled maintenance covers work necessitated by
occurrences that are not normally related to time limits ­e.g., bird
ingestion, a strike by lightning, or heavy landing. Unscheduled
work may also result from malfunctions, trou­bleshooting, or
scheduled maintenance inspections.
 
Line Maintenance
Maintenance functions also fall into the two categories of line
maintenance and heavy maintenance. The scope of line maintenance
consists of removal and installation of external components and
engine accessories as well as hot section inspection. Much of the
work considered to be line maintenance is removal and replacement
of malfunctioning line replaceable units (LRUs). All procedures are
considered line maintenance that do not fall under heavy
maintenance.
 
 Heavy Maintenance
Heavy maintenance entails removal, installation, and repair of
components normally considered beyond the capabilities of the
average line maintenance facility. Normally, proce­dures that are
considered heavy maintenance are noted as such and require
considerable equipment and engine knowledge. Heavy maintenance
is normally performed at an overhaul facility.
Maintenance Precautions
Certain precautions must be observed during engine
maintenance. The ignition system is potentially lethal; therefore,
before any work is done on the high-energy ignition units, the
igniter plugs or the harness must be disconnected and at least 1 min
allowed to elapse before the high-tension lead is disconnected.
Similarly, before carrying out work on units connected to the
electrical system, make sure that the system is safe, either by
switching off the power or by tripping and tagging the appropriate
circuit breakers. With some installations, the isolation of certain
associated systems may be required.
 When the oil system is being replenished, care must be taken so
that no oil is spilled. If any oil is accidentally spilled, clean it off
immediately, because it is injurious to paint and to certain rubber
compounds that may be found in the electrical harnesses or other
components. Oil can also be toxic through absorption if it is allowed
to come into contact with the human skin for prolonged periods.
Care should be taken not to overfill the oil system. (Overfilling may
easily occur if the aircraft is not on level ground or if the engine has
been stationary for a long peri­od of time.)
 Before making an inspection of the air intake or exhaust system,
make sure that there is absolutely no possibility of the starter
system being operated or the ignition system being energized.
Always make a final inspection of the engine, air intake, and
exhaust system after any repair, adjustment, or compo­nent change
to ensure that no loose items have been left inside.
Always observe fire safety precautions at all times when
procedures involve the use of fuels or similar combustibles,
especially during testing of fuel nozzles or fuel system components.
Component Maintenance
Fan Blades. Fan blades receive damage from time to time
because of foreign objects being drawn into the inlet of the engine.
Small rocks cause nicks which are usually repairable as specified in
the maintenance manual. Typically, a small nick may be repaired if
it is within the dimensions specified. The cuts made in the process
of repairing the blade are termed "flyback cuts."
 If fan blade damage is such that all damaged sections can be
removed within the limitations shown in Fig. 18-25, the blade can
be continued in service for a maximum of 20 h. The repair must
adhere to any combination of limits shown for cuts I, 2, 3, and 4;
and the blade may be repaired up to the maximum dimension
defined by the envelope created by all four cuts.
 The leading edge of the blade can be cut back a distance of 0.250
in [6.35 mm] for a distance of 11 in [27.94 cm] along the blade.
Toward the tip, deeper cuts can be made as shown.
For blades with FOD (foreign-object damage) confined to the
blade tip only, repair may be made and the blade continued in
service provided that the repair adheres to the limits shown for cut
I, 2, or 3 and that the blade is repaired up to the maximum
dimension of only one of the permissi­ble cuts.
 In the repair of fan blades, certain conditions are speci­fied. For
example, all repair cuts must have a length-to-depth ratio greater
than 4: l. Contours must be smooth and continuous, with a
minimum radius of 0.250 in [6.35 mm]. The leading-edge contour
after repair should conform as nearly as possible to the original.
Repaired areas must be checked with a dye or fluorescent penetrant
to ensure that there are no cracks.
 The repair of fan blades while the fan rotor is installed in the
engine requires that the area to be reworked be com­pletely masked
off to ensure that no metal splatter can strike any other blade or
disk surface. Cutting is accom­plished with a 2-in [5.08-cm] cutting
wheel mounted in an air chuck operating at 18,000 rpm maximum.
A minimum of 0.060 in [1.52 mm] of material must be left for
hand fil­ing and polishing to ensure removal of any heat-affected
areas.
 Shingled blades may be un shingled and continued in service for
a maximum of 20 h provided that they can be un shingled without
further damage and that inspection shows that the midspan shroud
of a shingled blade has not hit the airfoil section of an adjacent
blade or the radius between the airfoil and the midspan shroud of
the adjacent blade. Blades showing evidence of having been hit in
this manner must be removed from service before further flight.
After 20 h of service, shingled blades should be removed and
subjected to overhaul-type inspection.
 
 Compressor blades are subject to the same type of damage
encountered by fan blades, and the repair procedures are similar.
Figure is adapted from the maintenance manual for the Pratt &
Whitney JT8D engine and shows some of the permissible repairs for
compressor blades. Note that there are definite limits on the depth of
a cut that is allowed in removing a nick, scratch, or other damage
caused by the ingestion of a foreign object. The limits vary in
accordance with the part of the blade where the damage is located.
The portions of the blade which have higher stresses may not be cut
as deeply as the portions subjected to lower stresses during
operation. During blade repairs, care must be taken to maintain the
original profile of the blade within reasonable limits.
 The foregoing examples of blade repair are provided for
information only, to illustrate typical practices. For a spe­cific
engine, the appropriate specifications given in the maintenance
manual must be used. 
Turbine Blades
Serviceability limits for turbine blades are much more stringent
than are those for nozzle vanes. This is particularly true for first-
stage blades because of the high temperatures involved. The
centrifugal stresses to which turbine blades are subjected require
that the blades be free of cracks in any area and that no nicks or
dents exist in the root area. A limited number of small nicks and
dents can be permitted in the areas of the blade away from the root
area. No burning or distortion is permitted.
 Other conditions to look for during inspection include blade
creep, which is the permanent elongation of the tur­bine blades due to
rotational forces, and untwist, which is a condition that results from
the gas path forces acting on the turbine blades. These forces tend to
change the pitch of the blade, which generally decreases blade
efficiency.
Repairs for Turbine Nozzles, Vanes, & Blades
When a borescope inspection reveals that there is damage or
deterioration in the hot sections of the engine, the areas involved
must be disassembled sufficiently to remove the defective parts.
Parts requiring repair are replaced with new or reworked parts
from the factory or an overhaul facility.
Replacement of turbine blades must be done with blades having
the correct moment-weight designation to ensure that the turbine
rotor will be in balance when assembled. The maintenance manual
for each engine specifies the cor­rect arrangement of blades
according to their moment­weight markings.