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Chapter 14
Operating Systems
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

 Definition and need for operating system
 Main functions of an operating system
 Commonly used mechanisms for:
 Process management
 Memory management
 File management
 Security
 Command interpretation module
 Some commonly used OS capability enhancement software
 Some popular operating systems

Ref Page 251 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 2/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Definition and Need for OS

 Integrated set of programs that controls the resources

(the CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc.) of a computer
system
 Provides its users with an interface or virtual machine
that is more convenient to use than the bare
machine
 Two primary objectives of an OS are:
 Making a computer system convenient to use
 Managing the resources of a computer system

Ref Page 251 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 3/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Lo gical Architecture of a Computer System

Users

Other
System Software and
Application
Programs

Operating
System
The operating
Computer system layer hides the
Hardware details
the hardware
of from the
programmer
and provides the
with convenient interface
programmer
for using the system

Ref Page 251 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 4/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Main Functions of an OS

 Process management
 Memory management
 File management
 Security
 Command interpretation

Ref Page 251 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 5/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Parameters for Measuring System

Performance

 Throughput: Amount of work that the system is able to

do per unit time
 Turnaround time: Interval from the time of submission
of a job to the system for processing to the time of
completion of the job
 Response time: Interval from the time of submission of a
job to the system for processing to the time the first
response for the job is produced by the system

Ref Page 251 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 6/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Process Management

 A process (also called job) is a program in execution

 Process management manages the processes
submitted to a system in a manner to minimize idle time
of processors (CPUs, I/O processors, etc.) of the system

Ref Page 251 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 7/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Process Management Mechanisms in

Early Systems

 Manual loading mechanism: Jobs were manually

loaded one after another in a computer by the
computer operator
 Batch processing mechanism: Batch of jobs was
submitted together to the computer and job-to-job
transition was done automatically by the operating
system
 Job Control Language (JCL): Control statements
were used to facilitate job loading and unloading

Ref Page 251 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 8/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Use of Job Control Statements in Batch

Processing (An Example)

$END
Data for program

$RUN
$
L
O
A
D

C
O
B
O
L
Ref Page 251 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 9/54
p
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Multiprogramming
 Uniprogramming: Only one job is processed at a
time and all system resources are available exclusively
for the job until its completion
 Multiprogramming: Interleaved execution of two or
more different and independent programs by a
computer
 Types of Multiprogramming:
 Multiprogramming with fixed tasks (MFT): Fixed
number of jobs can be processed concurrently
 Multiprogramming with variable tasks (MVT):
Number of jobs can vary
 Area occupied by each job residing simultaneously in
the main memory is known as a memory partition

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 10/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Job

 CPU bound: Mostly perform computations with little

I/O operations. Scientific and engineering
computations usually fall in this category
 I/O bound: Mostly perform I/O operations with little
computation. Commercial data processing applications
usually fall in this category

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 11/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Uniprogramming System
Main memory

Operating OS area
system

User job User program area

Execution in
progress

CPU

Only one job is processed by the system at a time and all

the system resources are exclusively available for the
job until it completes

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 12/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Multiprogramming System

Main memory

Operating system

Writing output data Job A

Job B

Job C
Secondary disk storage (Waiting for CPU)

Execution in
progress
CPU

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 13/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Process States in Multiprogramming

Job is allocated the

New CPU for Job
job Ready Running processing
execution

completed

I/O completed Job must wait for I/O

Blocked completion

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 14/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Requirements of Multiprogramming Systems

 Large memory
 Memory protection
 Job status preservation
 Proper job mix (CPU and I/O bound jobs)
 CPU scheduling

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 15/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Process Control Block (PCB)

process identifier
process state
program counter
values of various CPU
registers
accounting and scheduling
information
I/O status information

PCB is used to preserve the job status of each loaded

process in a multiprogramming system

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 16/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Multitasking

 Interleaved execution of multiple jobs (often referred

to as tasks of same user) in a single-user system
 Computer systems used for multitasking are
uniprocessor systems (having only one
CPU)
 Treated differently from multiprogramming that refers
to interleaved execution of multiple jobs in a multi-
user system

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 17/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Multithreading

 Thread is basic unit of CPU utilization. Threads

share a CPU in the same way as processes
do
 All threads of a process also share the same set of
operating system resources
 All threads of a process inherit parent’s address
space and security parameters
 Each thread of a process has its own program
counter, its own register states, and its own stack
 Referred as mini-process or lightweight process

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 18/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Multithreading System

Address space
Address space
Thread
Thread Thread Thread

(a) Single-threaded and (b) multithreaded processes.

A single-threaded process corresponds to a process of
a traditional operating system. [Reproduced with
permission, from the book titled Distributed Operating
Systems: Concepts and Design by Pradeep K. Sinha.
© 1997 IEEE, USA].

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 19/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Multiprocessing

 System with two or more CPUs having ability to execute

multiple processes concurrently
 Multiple CPUs are used to process either instructions from
different and independent programs or different
instructions from the same program simultaneously
 Types of multiprocessing:
 Tightly-coupled: Single system-wide primary memory
shared by all processors
 Loosely-coupled: Each processor has its own local
memory

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 20/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

CPU, Memory, and I/O Processors of a

Computer System

Main
memory

I/O
I/O Units CPU
Processors

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 21/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Multiprocessing System

Main
CPU-1 CPU-2
memory

I/O I/O
processors processors

I/O units I/O units

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 22/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Time-sharing

 Simultaneous interactive use of a computer system by

many users in such a way that each one feels that
he/she is the sole user of the system
 User terminals connected to the same computer
simultaneously
 Uses multiprogramming with a special CPU scheduling
algorithm
 Short period during which a user process gets to use
CPU is known as time slice, time slot, or quantum
 CPU is taken away from a running process when the
allotted time slice expires

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 23/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Process State Diagram for a Time-Sharing

System

Job is allocated to
Job
New CPU for Running
Ready execution processing
Job
completed
Allotted time slice is over
I/O completed Job must wait
for I/O
completion
Blocked

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 24/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Advantages of Time-sharing Systems

 Reduces CPU idle time

 Provides advantages of quick response time
 Offers good computing facility to small users

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 25/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Memory Management

 Memory is important resource of a computer system

that must be properly managed for the overall system
performance
 Memory management module:
 Keeps track of parts of memory in use and parts not
in use
 Allocates memory to processes as needed and
deallocates when no longer needed

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 26/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Uniprogramming Memory Model

 Used in systems that process one job only at a time, and

all system resources are available exclusively for the
job until it completes
 Simple and easy to implement
 Does not lead to proper utilization of the main memory as
unoccupied memory space by the currently active user
process remains unused
 Used only on very small or dedicated computer systems

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 27/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Uniprogramming Memory Model

Operating system
Operating system area

User process

User area

Unused

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 28/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Multiprogramming Memory Models

Two memory management schemes used to facilitate this

are:
 Multiprogramming with fixed number of memory
partitions: User area of the memory is divided into a
number of fixed-sized partitions
 Multiprogramming with variable number of memory
partitions: Number, size and location of the partitions
vary dynamically as processes come and go

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 29/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Multiprogramming with Fixed Number of Memory

Partition

Operating system Operatin

area g
system
Partition 1

Partition 2
User area divided
into n equal- Partition 3
sized partitions

Partition n

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 30/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Multiprogramming with Variable Number of

Memory Partitions
Time
Operating Operating Operating Operating
system system system system
P1 P1 P1
P1 P2 P3
comes comes comes
P2 P2
User
Free
Free
area
P3
Free
Free

(a) (b) (c) (d)

The number, size, and location of the partitions vary
dynamically as processes come and go. (contd…)

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 31/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Multiprogramming with Variable Number of

Memory Partitions

Operatin Operatin Operatin Operatin

g g g g
system system system system
P5
P1 P1 Free 3
P4 Free 3
P2 P1 P5
P2
s Comes which
P4 terminate comes P4
terminate cannot fit in s P4
Free 2 Free 1 so which can
is allocated fit in
space from Free 2 Free 3 Free 2
Free 2
Free 2
P3 P3 P3
P3

Free 1 Free 1 Free 1

Free 1

(e) (f) (g)

(h)

The number, size, and location of the partitions vary dynamically as processes come and go.

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 32/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Virtual Memory

Memory management scheme that allows execution of

processes that might not be completely loaded in the main
memory.

It does not require the entire process to be in memory

before the process can execute

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 33/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Virtual Memory Realization

Three basic concepts used for its realization are:

 On-line secondary storage: Used to keep a process’s
address space ready to be loaded into the memory
 Swapping: Process of transferring a block of data from
the on-line secondary storage to main memory
(swapping in) or vice-versa (swapping out)
 Demand paging: Scheme of swapping in of pages of a
process as and when needed during execution of the
process, rather than loading all the pages before
starting the process’s execution

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 34/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Advantages of Virtual Memory

 Provides a large virtual memory to programmers on a

system having smaller physical memory
 Enables execution of a process on a system whose main
memory size is less than the total memory required by the
process
 Enables a process’s execution to be started even when
sufficient free memory for loading the entire process is not
available
 Makes programming easier there no longer need to worry
about the memory size limitations
 Often leads to less I/O activity resulting in better
throughput, turnaround time, and response
time

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 35/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Diisadvantages of Virtual Memory

 Difficult to implement because it requires algorithms to

support demand paging
 If used carelessly, it may substantially decrease
performance due to high page fault rate

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 36/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

File Management

 A file is a collection of related information

 Every file has a name, its data and attributes
 File’s name uniquely identifies it in the system and is used
by its users to access it
 File’s data is its contents
 File’s attributes contain information such as date & time of
its creation, date & time of last access, date & time of
last update, its current size, its protection features, etc.
 File management module of an operating system takes
care of file-related activities such as structuring,
accessing, naming, sharing, and protection of files

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 37/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

File Access Methods

Two commonly supported file access methods are:

 Sequential access: Information stored in a file can be
accessed sequentially (in the order in which they are
stored, starting at the beginning)
 Random access: Information stored in a file can be
accessed randomly irrespective of the order in
which the bytes or records are stored

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 38/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

File Operations

 Set of commands provided by an operating system to

deal with files and their contents
 Typical file operations include create, delete, open,
close, read, write, seek, get attributes, set attributes,
rename, and copy

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 39/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

File Naming

File naming deals with the rules for naming files in an

operating system. This may include such rules as:
 Maximum number of characters that a file name may
have
 Special characters allowed in a file name
 Distinction between upper case and lower case
letters
 Multi-part file names allow file extensions to be part of a
file name. File extensions indicate something about the
file and its content
 Used by applications to check for the intended type of
file before operating on it

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 40/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

File Extensions (Example)

File extension Its meaning

.bas Basic source program file
.c C source program file
.ftn Fortran source program file
.pas Pascal source program file
.obj Object file (compiler output, not yet linked)
.bin Executable binary program file
.lib Library of .obj files used by the linker
.dat Data file
.hlp Text file for HELP command
.man Online manual page file

(Continued on next slide

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 41/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

File Extensions (Example)

(Continued from previous slide)

File extension Its meaning

.man Online manual page file

.txt General text file
.bak Backup file
.doc Microsoft word document file
.wav Microsoft windows sound file
.wk4 Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet file
.xls Microsoft Excel spreadsheet file
.jpg JPEG graphics file
.gif GIF graphics file

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 42/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Security

 Deals with protecting the various resources and information

of a computer system against destruction and unauthorized
access

 External security: Deals with securing computer against

external factors such as fires, floods, earthquakes, stolen
disks/tapes, etc. by maintaining adequate backup, using
security guards, allowing access to sensitive information to
only trusted employees/users, etc.
 Internal security: Deals with user authentication, access
control, and cryptography mechanisms

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 43/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Security

 User authentication: Deals with the problem of

verifying the identity of a user (person or program)
before permitting access to the requested
resource
 Access Control: Once authenticated, access control
mechanisms prohibit a user/process from accessing those
resources/information that he/she/it is not authorized to
access
 Cryptography: Means of encrypting private information
so that unauthorized access cannot use information

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 44/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Command Interpretation

 Provides a set of commands using which the user can give

instructions to the computer for getting some job done by
it
 Commands supported by the command interpretation
module are known as system calls

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 45/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Command Interpretation
(Continued from previous slide)

Two types of user interfaces supported by various operating

systems are:
 Command-line interface: User gives instructions to
the computer by typing the commands
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): User gives
commands to the system by selecting icon or menu
item displayed on the screen with the use of a point-
and-draw device

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 46/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

OS Capability Enhancement Software

 Perform several tasks of routine nature, frequently

needed by users but are not provided as part of the OS

 They are primarily grouped into three categories:

 Translating programs: Translate a source program
into an object program
 Library programs: Consist of frequently used
functions and operations
 Utility programs: Assist users with system
maintenance tasks such as disk formatting, data
compression, data backups, antivirus utilities

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 47/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

UNIX OS

 Developed in the early 1970s at Bell Laboratories by Ken

Thompson and Dennis Ritchie
 Written in C high-level language, hence, highly portable
 Multi-user, time-sharing OS
 Used on a wide variety of computers ranging from
notebook computers to super computers
 Especially prevalent on RISC workstations such as those
from Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, and
Silicon Graphics
 Structured in three layers – kernel, shell, and utilities

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 48/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

MS-DOS

 Stands for Microsoft Disk Operating System.

 Single-user OS for IBM and IBM-compatible personal
computers (PC)
 Structured in three layers – BIOS (Basic Input Output
System), kernel, and shell
 Very popular in the 1980s, now not in much use and
development with the launch of Microsoft Windows OS in
1990s

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 49/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Microsoft Windows

 Developed by Microsoft to overcome limitations of MS-

DOS operating system
 Single-user, multitasking OS
 Native interface is a GUI
 Designed to be not just an OS but also a complete
operating environment
 OS of choice for most PCs after 1990

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 50/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Microsoft Windows NT

 Multi-user, time-sharing OS developed by Microsoft

 Designed to have UNIX-like features so that it can be
used for powerful workstations, network, and database
servers
 Supports multiprogramming and is designed to take
advantage of multiprocessing on systems having
multiple processors
 Native interface is a GUI
 Built-in networking and communications features
 Provides strict system security
 Rich set of tools for software development

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 51/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Linux

 Open-source OS enhanced and backed by thousands of

programmers world-wide
 Multi-tasking, multiprocessing OS, originally designed to
be used in PCs
 Name “Linux” is derived from its inventor Linus Torvalds
 Several Linux distributions available (Red Hat, SuSE).
Difference in distribution is mostly set of tools, number
and quality of applications, documentation, support, and
service

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 52/54

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Keywords/Phrases
 Access control  Memory management
 Batch processing  Memory partition
 Command interpretation  Microsoft Windows
 Command-line interface (CLI)  Microsoft Windows NT
 CPU-bound jobs  MS-DOS
 Cryptography  Multiprocessing
 Demand paging  Multiprogramming
 External security  Multiprogramming with fixed tasks (MFT)
 File  Multiprogramming with variable tasks
 File attributes (MVT)
 File extensions  Operating systems
 File management  Multithreading
 Graphical User Interface (GUI)  Process
 I/O-bound jobs  Process Control Block (PCB)
 Internal security Multitasking
 Job control language (JCL)  Process management
 Library programs  Random access files
 Linux  Response time
 Loosely coupled system  Security
 Sequential access files
 Swapping

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 53/54
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Keywords/Phrases
(Continued from previous slide)

 Throughput
 Tightly coupled system
 Time-sharing
 Time slice
 Time slot
 Translating programs
 Turnaround time
 Unix
 User authentication
 Utility programs
 Virtual machine
 Virtual memory

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 54/54