Collecting primary data using

semi-structured, in-depth and

group interviews
Interviews
• An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more people
• The use of interviews can help you to gather valid and reliable data
that are relevant to your research question(s) and objectives
• In reality, the research interview is a general term for several types of
interview.
• This fact is significant since the nature of any interview should be
consistent with your research question(s) and objectives, the purpose
of your research and the research strategy that you have adopted.
Types of interview
• structured interviews
• semi-structured interviews
• unstructured or in-depth interviews
structured interviews

• Structured interviews use questionnaires based on a predetermined

and ‘standardized’ or identical set of questions and we refer to them
as interviewer-administered questionnaires

• You read out each question and then record the response on a
standardized schedule, usually with pre-coded answers

• As structured interviews are used to collect quantifiable data they are

also referred to as ‘quantitative research interviews
semi-structured interviews

• semi-structured and in-depth (unstructured) interviews are ‘unstandardized’.

• In semi-structured interviews the researcher will have a list of themes and

questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to
interview.

• The order of questions may also be varied depending on the flow of the
conversation. On the other hand, additional questions may be required to
explore your research question and objectives given the nature of events
within particular organizations.
unstructured or in-depth interviews

• Unstructured interviews are informal

• You would use these to explore in depth a general area in which you are interested.

• The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events, behavior and beliefs in
relation to the topic area, so that this type of interaction is sometimes called ‘non-directive’.

• It has been labelled as an informant interview since it is the interviewee’s perceptions that
guide the conduct of the interview.

• participant (or respondent) interview is one where the interviewer directs the interview and
the interviewee responds to the questions of the researcher
• In an exploratory study, in-depth interviews can be very helpful to ‘find out
what is happening [and] to seek new insights’. Semi-structured interviews may
also be used in relation to an exploratory study.

• In descriptive studies, structured interviews can be used as a means to

identify general patterns.

• In an explanatory study, semi-structured interviews may be used in order to

understand the relationships between variables, such as those revealed from
a descriptive study. Structured interviews may also be used in relation to an
explanatory study, in a statistical sense
Mixed method research
• Your research may incorporate more than one type of interview
(multiple methods).

• The data that you gather from such exploratory interviews will be
used in the design of your structured interview.
When to use non-standardized
(qualitative) interviews
1. The purpose of the research
• Where you are undertaking an exploratory study, or a study that includes
an exploratory element, it is likely that you will include non-standardized
(qualitative) research interviews in your design

• Similarly, an explanatory study is also likely to include interviews in order

for the researcher to be able to infer causal relationships between variables

• Semi-structured and in-depth interviews are important if you are adopting

an interpretivist epistemology
2. The significance of establishing personal contact
• Potential research participants who receive a questionnaire via the
Internet, the intranet or through the post may be reluctant to complete
it for a number of reasons.
• They may feel that it is not appropriate to provide sensitive and
confidential information to someone they have never met.

• They may be reluctant to spend time providing written explanatory

answers, where these are requested, especially if the meaning of any
question is not entirely clear.
3. The nature of the questions

A semi-structured or in-depth interview will be most appropriate for

the two types of situation.

• where there are a large number of questions to be answered

• where the questions are either complex or open-ended
• where the order and logic of questioning may need to be varied
4. Length of time required and completeness of the process

• The time needed for the participant to complete the questionnaire

may mean that an interview is in any case the best or only alternative.
Data quality issues
1. Reliability
• The lack of standardization in such interviews may lead to concerns about reliability.
• Reliability is concerned with whether alternative researchers would reveal similar information

2. forms of bias

interviewer bias
• This is where the comments, tone or non-verbal behavior of the interviewer creates bias in the
way that interviewees respond to the questions being asked

• This may be where you attempt to impose your own beliefs and frame of reference through the
questions that you ask.
interviewee or response bias
• This type of bias may be caused by perceptions about the interviewer,
as referred to above, or in relation to perceived interviewer bias.
• Bias may also result from the nature of the individuals or
organizational participants who agree to be interviewed
• The time-consuming requirements of the interview process may
result in a reduction in willingness to take part on behalf of some of
those to whom you would like to talk. This may bias your sample from
whom data are collected
3. Generalizability
• Validity refers to the extent to which the researcher gains access to
their participants’ knowledge and experience, and is able to infer a
meaning that the participant intended from the language that was
used by this person
• The high level of validity that is possible in relation to non-
standardized (qualitative) interviews that are conducted carefully is
due to the questions being able to be clarified, meanings of responses
probed and topics discussed from a variety of angles.
Overcoming data quality issues
1. Reliability
2. Preparation (prior planning prevents poor performance)
• Level of knowledge
You need to be knowledgeable about the research topic and
organizational or situational context in which the interview is to take
place.

• Level of information supplied to the interviewee

Credibility may also be promoted through the supply of relevant
information to participants before the interview
Providing participants with a list of the interview themes before the
event, where this is appropriate, should help this.

• Appropriateness of location
you should choose a location which is convenient for your participants,
where they will feel comfortable and where the interview is unlikely to
be disturbed
• Appropriateness of the researcher’s appearance at the interview
Your appearance may affect the perception of the interviewee. Essentially, you will
need to wear clothing that will be generally acceptable for the setting within which
the interview is to occur

• Nature of the opening comments to be made when the interview commences

Where the interviewee has not met you before, the first few minutes of
conversation will have a significant impact on the outcome of the interview – again
related to the issue of your credibility and the level of the interviewee’s confidence
• Approach to questioning
When conducted appropriately, your approach to questioning should reduce
the scope for bias during the interview. Your questions need to be phrased
clearly, so that the interviewee can understand them, and you should ask them
in a neutral tone of voice.

• Nature and impact of the interviewer’s behavior during the course of the
interview
Appropriate behavior by the researcher should also reduce the scope for bias
during the interview. Comments or non-verbal behavior, such as gestures,
which indicate any bias in your thinking should be avoided.
• Demonstration of attentive listening skills
The purpose of a semi-structured or in-depth interview will be to
understand the participant’s explanations and meanings. You must also
provide the interviewee with reasonable time to develop their responses,
and you must avoid projecting your own views

• Scope to test understanding

You may test your understanding by summarizing an explanation provided
by the interviewee. This will allow the interviewee to ‘evaluate the
adequacy of the interpretation and correct where necessary’
• Approach to recording data
If possible, immediately after the interview has taken place you should compile a full record of the
interview (Robson 2002), including contextual data.

contextual data
• the location of the interview (e.g. the organization, the place);
• the date and time;
• the setting of the interview (e.g. was the room quiet or noisy, could you be overheard, were you
interrupted?);
• background information about the participant (e.g. role, post title, gender);
• your immediate impression of how well (or badly) the interview went (e.g. was the participant
reticent, were there aspects about which you felt you did not obtain answers in sufficient depth?).
• Cultural differences and bias
there may be misinterpretation of responses because of cultural differences between
the interviewee and the interviewer.

3. Generalizability
data quality issues relating to semi structured and in-depth interviews, two arguments
have been advanced that seek to clarify and modify the approach often adopted to
the generalizability or transferability of qualitative research.

1. Case study
2. Theoretical propositions
Interviewing competence
1. Questioning
• Open questions
The use of open questions will allow participants to define and
describe a situation or event. It encourages the interviewee to reply as
they wish.

Example
• Why did the organization introduce its marketing strategy?’
• ‘How has corporate strategy changed over the past five years?’
• Probing questions
They may be worded like open questions but request a particular focus
or direction

Examples
• ‘How would you evaluate the success of this new marketing strategy?’
• ‘What external factors caused the corporate strategy to change?’
• Probing questions may also be used to seek an explanation where you
do not understand the interviewee’s meaning or where the response
does not reveal the reasoning involved.

Examples
• ‘What do you mean by “bumping” as a means to help to secure
volunteers for
• Specific and closed questions
• These types of question are similar to those used in structured
interviews. They can be used to obtain specific information or to
confirm a fact or opinion

Examples
‘How many people responded to the customer survey?’
2. Recognizing and dealing with difficult participants
3. Recording interview data
The need to create a full record of the interview soon after its
occurrence was identified. look briefly at the use of audio-recorders
and the need to develop the skill of making notes during the interview.

4. Managing logistical and resource issues

• Time issue (45 minutes)
• Costly (travel, tools for recording)
Group interviews and focus groups
Non-standardized interviews may also be conducted on a group basis,
where the interviewer asks questions to a group of participants

1. group interview
2. focus group
Instructions
1. Where one or two people dominate the discussion, you should seek
to reduce their contributions carefully and to bring others in.

• What do you think, Yuksel?’

• ‘What do other people think about this?’
• How does Sandra’s point relate to the one that you raised, Sharon
2. You will need to ensure that participants understand each other’s
contributions and that you develop an accurate understanding of the
points being made.

3. You will need to consider the location and setting for a group
interview. It is advisable to conduct the interview in a neutral setting
rather than, say, in a manager’s office, where participants may not feel
relaxed
4. Finally, students often ask, ‘When will I know that I have undertaken
sufficient group interviews or focus groups?’ Writing about focus
groups, Krueger and Casey (2000) suggest that you should plan to
undertake three or four group interviews with any one type of
participant. If after the third or fourth group interview you are no
longer receiving new information, this means that you have heard the
full range of ideas and reached saturation.
Telephone, Internet- and intranet-
mediated
interviews
1. Telephone interviews
2. Internet- and intranet-mediated interviewing (electronic interviews)