DISTORTION

Any deviation from the original signal waveform is

called distortion.
These are mainly two types of distortion.
• Nonlinear distortion.
• Frequency distortion
Non-linear Distortion
• If an active device or circuit has nonlinear characteristics then the
output contains new frequencies which are not present in the input
signal. The current in the system is given by a nonlinear function.
• i = avi +abj2 +CVI 3
• If vi = A sinωt, the current contains the harmonics
Frequency Distortion
• Frequency distortion occur when the gain magnitude i.e., the response
of the system is subjected to frequency distortion. When the signal
contains different frequencies, each frequency is amplified differently
with consequent distortion of the waveform.
 An amplifier with poor high frequency response
distorts an input square wave into
poor low frequency response
Phase Distortion
Phase distortion is a result of unequal phase shift of signals of different
frequencies. This distortion is due to the fact that the phase angle of the complex
transfer function of a system depends on frequency.
Intermodulation distortion
Many signals to be amplified or processed are not sinusoidal. They are a composite
of many frequencies. In a linear system there would be inter action of these
frequencies. In a nonlinear circuit, signals of different frequencies will inter-
modulate to produce sum and difference frequencies.
The distortion of signal takes place because of the non-linear characteristics of
amplifier circuit elements like transistors. This distortion is called the harmonic
distortion.
Harmonic Distrotion
Harmonic distortion is measured by the ratio of the amplitude of
a particular harmonic to that of the fundamental.
If B1, B2, B3 ------------ Bn are the amplitude of the first,
second, third and n th harmonics present in a waveform.

The total harmonic distortion or distortion factor is given by.

There are different methods available for determining harmonic

distortion in a waveform.
So total harmonic distortion,
The amplitudes and frequencies of these harmonics can be determined by Fourier
theory.
Fourier theory states that any periodic waveform is equal to the sum of a dc term
plus sum of series of harmonically related sinusoids.
Tuned Circuit Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

Functional block diagram of tuned circuit harmonic analyzer

In this technique a series resonant circuit is subjected to the waveform to be

analyzed and the voltage developed at that frequency is amplified, detected and
measured using a meter.
The series resonant circuit is tuned to different harmonics, and their
relative amplitudes are noted.
LIMITATION:
The a.c resistance of the series resonant circuit and the gain of the
amplifier will vary with frequency. To compensate for these
variations, a parallel resonant circuit is connected across the input
terminals.

There are certain limitations associated with this simple technique.

• At low frequency large value of L and C are required. Due to

their physical size and consequent losses make their use
impractical.

• Higher harmonics of the signal are often too close to each

other. It is difficult to distinguish between them. So the output
what ever we get is the total harmonic distortion.
Heterodyne Harmonic Analyzer
Heterodyne Harmonic Analyzer
The heterodyne harmonic analyzer shown in previous slide over comes the
limitation of the tuned circuit harmonic analyzer.

The input signal to be analyzed, after necessary attenuation is mixed with the
output of the local oscillator. Each harmonic of the input waveform mixes with a
particular frequency of the local oscillator and produces the characteristic
frequency of the active filter. Thus each harmonic is converted to a constant
frequency. This frequency is passed on to the meter amplifier and detector
by a highly selective filter of the quartz crystal type.

The mixing circuit used in this techniques is a balanced modulator which

successfully eliminates the first harmonic of the original signal. In addition the
balanced modulator generates very low harmonic distortion.

The meter may be calibrated directly in terms of voltage or amplitudes of different

harmonics may be compared with a reference voltage. Usually amplitude of
different harmonics are compared with the fundamental.

In direct reading analyzers a low pass filter allows only the difference frequency
which is called as frequency selective voltmeters. This voltage is compared with the
input signal and read off on a calibrated voltmeter in db.
 Bridge
AMPLIFIER
Amplifier

With short between AB, ET

Total harmonics are measured.
Without short, only total
harmonics EH are measured.

Fundamental-Suppression Distortion Analyzer

Harmonic distortion analyzers are based on the fundamental
suppression which are employing
• A resonance bridge.
• Wien bridge method.
• Bridge T - network method.
Harmonic distortion analyzer measure the total harmonic
power present in the test wave rather than the distortion
caused by each component.
1. The input signal is fed to the 1MΩ input impedance
50db attenuator, 10db step, which is controlled by a
switch marked sensitivity situated on the front panel.
2. The signal is fed to the impedance converter which is a
low distortion, high input impedance unity gain
amplifier.
3. Then the signal passes through the rejection amplifier
system. It consist of a preamplifier with a Wien bridge
tuned to the fundamental frequency, and a bridge
amplifier. The Wien bridge couples the preamplifiers
and the bridge amplifier.
It suppresses the fundamental frequency and allow all other
harmonics.
4. The output of the bridge amplifier is connected to the meter
circuit via a post attenuator. The post attenuator limits the signal
level to 1mv for full scale deflection. It is a low drift, low noise
one with flat response. The meter scale is calibrated to RMS
values of sine wave.

Negative feedback between the bridge amplifier and the pre-

amplifier sharpens the response-of the Wien bridge there by
enhancing selectivity of the system.
To measure total harmonic distortion point A and B are shorted.
Then the meter reads ET , the total of the fundamentals and
harmonics. Now the short between A and B is removed and the
meter reading EH gives a measure of the harmonics. The total
harmonic distortion is then given by
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF WAVEFORM

The frequency composition of a signal, as expressed by the Fourier Series, is called

the frequency spectrum of a signal. Such a frequency spectrum of a waveform can
be plotted on a graph, with the frequencies of harmonics on the abscissa (X-axis)
and their amplitudes on the ordinate (Y-axis).
Let us consider again an ideal sawtooth waveform. With the help of mathematical
A calculations, it can be determined that the amplitude of n.th harmonic is equal to
A/n where A is the amplitude of the sawtooth waveform. So amplitude of first
harmonic is equal A/, amplitude of 2nd harmonic is equal to A/2, and so on.
Frequency spectrum of the saw tooth waveform is shown in Fig. 24.3.
Different waveforms have different frequency spectrums. Frequency spectrum of
any waveform gives:
(i)what are the harmonics present in the waveform, and
(ii)The amplitude of the harmonics present.

From Fig. 24.3 it can be seen that all harmonics are present and amplitude of
higher harmonics approach zero.
 Spectrum Analyzer.

Display of frequency spectrum on the screen is very helpful in the analysis of any
input signal because it gives the information about location and strength of all the
frequency components of the input signal.
Spectrum analyzers use either a parallel filter bank or a swept frequency
technique.
 Fig. Spectrum Analyzer (Parallel Filter Bank Analyzer)

Typically an audio-analyzer will have 32 of these filters, each covering one-third of

an octave.
For wideband narrow resolution analysis, particularly at RF or microwave signals,
the swept frequency technique is preferred.
Spectrum analysis is divided into two major categories on account of
instrumentation limitations and capabilities. These are
• Audio-frequency (AF) analysis.
• Radio-frequency (RF) spectrum analysis.
The RF spectrum analysis covers a frequency range of 10 MHz to 40 GHz, and
is, therefore, more important as it includes the vast majority of communication,
navigation, radar and industrial instrumentation frequency bands.
• Frequency of a tunable oscillator is linearly swept electronically
and filter output is supplied to the vertical deflection plates of a
CRO.

• As the oscillator frequency sweeps, amplitude of frequency

components appear on the screen one by one, separated from
each other in horizontal direction.

• Separation of display of various frequency components on the

screen is made by supplying a sawtooth wave signal to the
horizontal deflection plates of the CRO. The same sawtooth wave
signal is supplied to the oscillator to sweep it.
Sweep is done at a rapid rate so that the display of the frequency
spectrum appears constant and a real time-picture can be
observed on the screen.
Input signal is passed through an adjustable attenuator and then mixed in a mixer with the
signal from a variable frequency oscillator. This mixed signal is then filtered in the fixed
frequency active filter. The output of filter is then detected and supplied to the vertical
deflection plates of a CRO. Sawtooth signal generator supplies the signal to the oscillator and
the frequency of the oscillator is controlled by the instantaneous value of the sawtooth
voltage.
The oscillator frequency sweeps linearly and increases from its minimum value to its
maximum value as the sawtooth voltage rises from its minimum value to its maximum
value. The same sawtooth signal is supplied to the horizontal deflection plates of the CRO.
So it can be said that when sawtooth signal starts to rise from its minimum value, two events
occur at a time. 1. Frequency of oscillations starts to increase.
2. Spot on the screen starts travelling in horizontal direction.

VCO

Block Diagram of a Basic Spectrum Analyzer

 Three-Dimensional Presentation of Amplitude, Frequency and Time

Spectra of Different Signals.

Let us now study some of the commonly used signals in order to illustrate the spectra
which are displayed on the CRO when they are applied to the spectrum analyzer.
 
Continuous Wave (CW) Signals. When a continuous wave input signal is slowly swept
through by a spectrum analyzer's local oscillator, the response displayed on the screen is a
plot of the IF amplifier pass band. Since the CW signal has energy at only one
frequency, the display on the screen will be a single spike which occurs in case the total
RF sweep width or spectrum width is wide as compared to the IF bandwidth in the
analyzer.
(ii) Amplitude Modulated (AM) Signals: We know that when a continuous wave (CW)
signal of frequency fc is amplitude modulated by an input signal of frequency fs, two side-
band frequencies of (fc + fs ) and (fc - fs ) are produced. The display on the screen of
spectrum analyzer screen is a signal of frequency f c, with two sideband frequencies whose
magnitude relative to the carrier frequency depends upon the percentage of modulation.

A Single Tone AM Display on Analyzer

(iii)Frequency Modulated (FM) Signals:
 
If a continuous wave (CW) signal of frequency fc is frequency modulated at a
rate fr, it will develop an infinite number of sidebands. These are located at intervals of fc
= nfr where n is an integer (1, 2, 3,…..). However, in practice, only the side bands
containing significant power are usually considered.

Amplitude-Spectrum of Single Tone FM

 (iv) Pulse-Modulated Signals: An idealized pulse waveform in time domain is
illustrated in Fig. (a), but for the analysis of its frequency spectrum, it must be broken into
its individual frequency components, as illustrated in Fig. (b) Green chart.
A spectral plot in the frequency domain has been given in Fig. (a) RED, where
the amplitude and phases of an infinite number of harmonics are plotted resulting in a
smooth envelope as illustrated in (b).

Pulse Modulation Spectrum

There are many more applications of spectrum analyzer, few of
these are given below :
(a)Pulse width and repetition rate measurements
(b) Tuning a parametric amplifier
(c) FM deviation measurements
(d) RF interference testing
(e)Antenna pattern measurements.