LEARNING

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Learning is “any Measurable Change
relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of practice or
experience.”
Stimulus & Response: - The goal of learning experiment
is to establish lawful relationship between: conditions as
1. frequency of stimulus presentation,
2. their surrounding,
3. punishing sequences

and the occurrence of response.

 
Association: -

Whenever a stimulus situation comes to evoke a

response, which it did not evoke previously, we say
that an association has been formed between the
stimulus and the response.
Association is a basic concept in learning.
 
Retention: - The persistence of the
measurable changes in behavior that have
been acquired through practice.
 
 
Types Of Learning

1. Verbal Learning : Acquisition of Verbal Behavior

( Learning Language )
2. Motor Skill : Acquisition of Nature and speed of
Muscular Movement.
3. Problem Solving : Discovery of the correct
response
 Methods Of Learning
1. Imitation
2. Trial and Error (E. L.Thorndike1874 – 1949)
3. Insight (W. Kohler 1887-1967)
4. a) Classical Conditioning (I. Pavlov1849-1936)
b) Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner 1904-1990)
5. Observational Learning (A Bandura1925-2021)
6. Latent Learning (Edward Tolman1886-1959)
Learning by Imitation.

Most important form of learning.

Human Child learns mostly through
imitation.
E. g. Learning to speak, eat,
mannerisms etc.
Trial and Error Learning :

It is learning by selection of the successful

variant. A type of learning in which the organism
successively tries various situation , seemingly at
random, until one is successful in achieving the
goal. Across successive trials the successful
response is strengthened and appears earlier and
earlier. E. g. Maze learning
Trial and Error (E. L. Thorndike)
1.It involves learning by trying alternative
possibilities until the desired out is Achieved.
2. It requires the individual to be motivated to
explore and respond to the environment.
3. Correct response ( trials) must be rewarded.
Law of effect.
Trial and Error (E. L. Thorndike)
The Cat in the puzzle box is
‘instrumental’ in learning the correct
response and operated on the environment,
to get the desires outcome. Thorndike
called it Instrumental learning.
Laws of Learning

1. Law of Readiness : Readiness creates a desire for

learning and turns the learner’s attitude towards the subject
to be learnt.

2. Law of Exercise : Also known as law of use and disuse.

This law emphasises upon repetition of activity resulting in
the formation of a habit in muscles and the nerve fibres of
the brain.
3. Law of Effect
Success or failure have a significant
effect on Learning.
Success leads to Satisfaction resulting
in strengthening of the S-R relation.
Failure leads to dissatisfaction
resulting weakening the S-R relation.
Learning by Insight ( W Köhler)

Based on Gestalt Principle. Insightful

Learning or Problem Solving that happens
all-of-a-sudden through understanding the
relationship of various parts of the problem
as a whole rather than through trial and error.
It has “Eureka Moment” or “Aha Moment”
Four Stages of Insight Learning 
1. Preparation: The process begins when see the relationships between
the materials, but cant find the solution. This is the stage of frustration. 
2. Incubation: During the incubation period, one “givesup”. Although
the project is abandoned, brain continues to make connections on an
unconscious level. 
3. Insight: When the right connections have been made in your mind, the
“a-ha” moment occurs. Eureka!  
4. Verification:  You test out your solution and hopefully, it works! The
connections you make solving this problem are likely to help you in the
future. 
Determinants of Insightful Learning

1. Comprehension as a whole
(Laws of Perceptual Grouping)
2. Suddenness of Solution
3. Experience
4. Intelligence
5. Learning Situation
6. Generalization/ Transfer
Conditioning in behavioral psychology is a
theory that the reaction ("response") to an
object or event ("stimulus") by a person or
animal can be modified by 'learning',
or conditioning. 
Classical Conditioning is learning to make a
reflex response to a stimulus other than the
original, natural stimulus that normally produces
the reflex.

E.g. Food- Salivation (reflex)

Non food item – Salivation ( Conditioning)
Classical conditioning ( Ivan Pavlov1926) is a
form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus
(CS) becomes associated with an unrelated
unconditioned stimulus (US) in order to produce
a behavioral response known as
a conditioned response (CR).
The conditioned response is the learned response
to the previously neutral stimulus.
 
Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): ( food)

Unconditioned Response (UR): ( saliva)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS ): ( bell)

Conditioned Response (CR ): ( saliva )
Unconditioned Stimulus (US )

The stimulus, which at the beginning of an

experiment can be depended on to evoke a
particular response, is called the unconditioned
stimulus. E.g. Food – Saliva.
Unconditioned Response UR:

The response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus is the unconditioned

response.

Food (US) Saliva (UR).

Conditioned Stimulus ( C S ):

Any Stimulus (bell) which comes to evoke the

Unconditioned Response (saliva) by virtue of
being paired with the US (food) is called a
Conditioned Stimulus E.g. the sound of bell or
metronome.
Conditioned Response CR :

When the Conditioned Response

(salivation) is made to a Conditioned
Stimulus (bell) it is called the Conditioned
Response
Experimental Extinction :

Disappearance or weakening of a learned

response Conditioned Response CR
following the removal or absence of the
Unconditioned Stimulus is known as
experimental extinction.
Spontaneous Recovery :

Reappearance of the learnt response

(CR) after the extinction has occurred is
known as spontaneous recovery.
Stimulus Generalization:

The tendency to respond to a stimulus

(Metronome)that is only similar to the
original Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Bell with
the Conditioned Response (CR) is called
stimulus generalization.
Stimulus Discrimination:

The tendency to stop making a generalized

response to a stimulus that is similar to the
original Conditioned Stimulus (CS) because
the similar stimulus is never paired with the
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Examples:
1. The salary day
2. Weekend excitement
3. Sleep time ritual
4. Craving for smoking/drinking after giving up (in familiar situations)
5. Fear during thunderstorm
6. Anxiety during rains/exams/ interviews
7. Panic attack inside the lift/escalator/height/open space
8. PTSD in safety
9. Training programs
10.Smartphone Notification sound
11. Dislike for some food
The list goes on
Operant Conditioning( B. F Skinner 1938)
The learning of voluntary behavior through the
effect of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to
response.
E. g.
Voluntary behavior- Pleasant Consequence-
immediate reinforcement
 Reinforcement : Any event or stimulus, that
when following a response, increases the
probability that the rate of response will increase.

Positive Reinforcement: presentation of food –

increases the rate of responses.

Negative Reinforcement : removal of shock –

increases the rate of response.
Punishment : Any event or stimulus, that
when following a response, decreases the
probability that the rate of response.

Positive Punishment: Add aversive stimulus

to decrease the behaviour.

Negative Punishment: Remove pleasant

stimulus to decrease behaviour.
Shaping Behavior
Shaping is a process that speeds up the training
process to shape the animal behavior, the
experimenter reinforces the animal for more and
more specific steps in the desirable behavior.
Because of the step-by-step procedure, shaping
is called the method of successive
approximation.
Shaping Experiment: -
Step I: - Rat allowed to get used to the box.
Step II: - It is given food till it eats each pellet as soon as it is
dropped.
Step III: - Whenever the rat comes close to lever – the ‘E’
releases the food – the rat stops exploring randomly.
Step IV: - ‘E’ releases food only if the rat is very close to the
lever.
Step V: - ‘E’ releases food only if rat touches the lever.
Step VI: - ‘E’ releases food only if rat pushes the lever – hard
enough for food to fall on the plate.
Experimental Neurosis
Experimental neurosis is an abnormal behavioral
condition produced in an artificial laboratory setting.
The subject is typically placed in a problem solving
or discernment scenario they cannot solve because it
is too difficult or impossible. This can result in
erratic altered behavior that mimics a mental
disorder.
Learned Helplessness
A mental state in which an organism forced to bear
aversive stimuli, or stimuli that are painful or
otherwise unpleasant, becomes unable or unwilling to
avoid subsequent encounters with those stimuli, even
if they are “escapable,” presumably because it has
learned that it cannot control the situation.
Reinforcement
1. Continuous reinforcement
When positive reinforcement is given for every occurrence
of a particular response.
2. Intermittent reinforcement
When according to a prearranged plan, the response being
studied is only some times followed by reinforcement.
3. Extinction :Extinction is the loss of an acquired response or the
failure to make a response, when reinforcement is no longer provided.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Types of intermittent Schedules
1. Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is based on
the passage of time.
2. Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is based on the
number of behavior required
3. Fixed Schedules: The requirement for
reinforcement is always the same.
4. Variable Schedule : The requirement for
reinforcement change randomly
Fixed Interval : Reinforcement is given after a set period of
time. The rate of response increases as the time of
reinforcement approaches and drops after.
Withdrawal of reinforcement leads to loss of learning
Variable Interval: Reinforcement is give after varying
length of time.
Expectency of reinforcement keeps the learner to steadily
respond. Rate of learning is slow.
Learning persist for a long time
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is given after a
fixed number of responses. The rate of
response is rapid, but drops after the
reinforcement.
Variable ratio: Reinforcement is given after
varying number of response. Rate of
response is high. Learning persist for a
longest time.
Premack Principle: ( David Premack)
The opportunity to engage in a more valued
activity reinforces engaging in a less valued
activity.
E.g. To get a chance to watch favorite TV
program, the child is asked to finish the home
work.
Observational Learning:
(Albert Bandura)
Four Conditions
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Reproduction
4. Motivation.

Bobo doll experiment

Observational learning : Albert Bandura
Bobo Doll Experiment
Latent Learning : E. Tolman

The learning, which takes place but does

not show up immediately in the learner’s
behavior, unless the conditions for its
appearance are favorable, is called latent
learning.
Group 1: Rewarded
Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, given food
(i.e. reinforced).
Group 2: No reward
Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, taken out.
Group 3 : Delayed Reward
Day 1 - 10: Every time they got to end, taken out.
Day 11 -17: Every time they got to end, given
food (i.e. reinforced).
Cognitive Maps:
Cognitive maps are also known as mental
maps, schemata, and frames of reference.
They are a small part of a person’s spatial
cognition. 
* Speak any language fluently
* Recall complicated formulas, math equations, or
numbers.
* Master the technical terms for your field of work
or study.
* Recite poetry, jokes, and even long speeches
word-for-word
* Quickly absorb the most important ideas from
books, textbooks, or lectures…