PROCESS SAFETY

MANAGEMENT
(PSM)
AND AS APPLIED TO A
PETROLEUM REFINERY
 PROGRAM OUTLINE
June 6, 2011
• Pre Lunch Session (4 hrs)
– Overview of Process Safety Management (PSM)
– PSM elements as applied to petroleum refinery
• Post Lunch Session (2 hrs)
– Classification of hazards
– Process Hazards in a petroleum refinery

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 PSM MODELS
• Various PSM models
• Centre for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS of AIChE)
• Chemical Manufacturers Association
• American Petroleum Institute
• Environmental Protection Agency
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
• OSHA rules for PSM
• Performance oriented
• Sets general requirements for management of hazardous
chemicals
• Recognized by industry as regulatory tool

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 PSM ELEMENTS
• 14 elements
1) Process safety information
a) Compiled and made available to all employees to
facilitate the understanding and identification of
hazards.
b) Includes block flow diagrams or process flow
diagrams, process chemistry
c) Includes process limitations, such as temperatures,
pressures, flows, and compositions
d) Consequences of process deviations

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e) process safety information is needed for training, process
hazards analysis, management of change, and accident
investigations.
2) Process Hazard Analysis
a) For less complex processes
i. What-if scenarios
ii. Checklists
iii. Failure mode and effects analysis
iv. Fault trees
b) For complex processes
i. Hazard and operatibility studies (HAZOP)
c) HAZOP is most suitable for refinery process units

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 PSM ELEMENTS
3) Operating Procedure
a) Facilitates safe operation of the plant
b) Must be documented
c) Consistent with the process safety information
d) Need to cover:
i. Initial startup, normal operations, temporary operations, emergency
shutdown, emergency operations, normal shutdown, startup after
normal and emergency shutdowns, operating limits and
consequences of deviations
ii. Safety and health considerations, hazardous properties of the
chemicals, exposure precautions, quality control specifications for all
chemicals, special or unique hazards
iii. safety control systems and functions
iv. Safe work practices such as hot work, lockout/tagout, and confined
space.
e) Operating procedures updated frequently
f) Documented engineering and administrative controls
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 PSM ELEMENTS
4) Employee Participation
a) Requires active employee participation in all the major
elements of PSM.
b) Employers must develop and document a plan of action to
specify this participation.
5) Training
a) An effective training program helps employees understand
the hazards associated with the tasks they perform.
b) Hazards are associated with emergency shutdowns,
startups, and normal operations.

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 PSM ELEMENTS
c) Hazards associated with emergency shutdowns,
startups, and normal operations.
d) Refresher training is given every three years and
more often if necessary
e) Documented manuals to be available for plant
operation and maintenance and these should form
basis for imparting training.
f) Maintenance and operations personnel should
receive initial training and refresher training

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 PSM ELEMENTS
6) Contractors
a) When selecting contractors, the employees need to
consider the contractors' safety performance in
addition to their skills.
b) Contractors should be trained to perform their tasks
safely to the same extent as employees.
c) Employers may need to enforce stringent safety
standards to ensure safe performance from
contractors.
d) However, safety performance of contractors is the
responsibility of the employer
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 PSM ELEMENTS
7) Pre-Startup Safety Review
a) A pre-startup safety review is conducted after a
modification to the process or operating conditions
has been made and before the startup
b) In this review it is ensured that :
i. The system is constructed in accordance with the design
specifications
ii. The safety, maintenance, operating, and emergency
procedures are in place
iii. The appropriate training is completed
iv. The recommendations from the PHA are implemented or
resolved.
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 PSM ELEMENTS
8) Mechanical Integrity
a) Ensures that the equipment, piping, relief systems, controls,
and alarms are mechanically sound and operational.
b) This includes:
i. Written procedures to maintain functioning systems
ii. Training regarding preventive maintenance
iii. Periodic inspections and testing based on vendor recommendations
iv. A process to correct deficiencies
v. A process to ensure that all equipment and spare parts are suitable.

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 PSM ELEMENTS
9) Hot Work Permit
a) Ascertains that a system is in place to prepare and issue
hot workpermits before conducting hot work activities
(welding, grinding, or using spark-producing
equipment).
i. The permit requires dates authorized for hot work
ii. The equipment involved in the work
iii. A system to maintain and document certification
iv. Identification of openings where sparks may drop
v. The types and numbers of fire extinguishers
vi. Identification of fire watches
vii. An inspection before the work

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 PSM ELEMENTS
viii Authorization signatures
ix Identification of flammable materials in the area
x Verification that the surrounding area is not explosive
xi Verification that combustible material are removed or
covered appropriately
xii Identification and closure of open vessels or ducts
xiii Verification that welded walls is not flammable
10) Management of Change
a) Employees are required to develop and implement
documented procedures to manage changes in the
process chemistry, process equipment, and operating
procedures.
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 PSM ELEMENTS
b) Before a change occurs, it must be reviewed to ascertain
that it will not affect the safety of the operation.
c) After the change has been made, all the affected employees
are trained, and a pre-startup review is conducted.
11) Incident Investigation
a) Process Safety Management mandates incident
investigation.

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b) Employers must investigate all incidents that have or
could have resulted in a major release or accident
within 48 hours of the event.
c) The regulation requires an investigation team should
include operators, who are knowledgeable about the
system.
d) After the investigation, the employers are required to
appropriately use the investigation
recommendations.

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12) Emergency Planning and Response
a) The intent for emergency planning and response is to
require employers to respond effectively to the release
of highly hazardous chemicals and flammable material.
b) Although the regulation requires this activity for
companies with more than 10 employees, this element
should be part of a program for even the smallest
organizations that handle hazardous chemicals and
flammable material.

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 PSM ELEMENTS
13) Compliance Audits
a) This ensures employers are required to certify that
they have evaluated their compliance with the
standard at least every three years.
b) The recommendations from the audit must be
followed.
c) The audit reports need to be retained as long as the
process exists.

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14) Trade Secrets
a) This mandates that all contractors are given all the
information relevant to operating in the plant safely.
b) Some personnel may need to sign secrecy
agreements before they receive this information.

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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
1) Process Safety Information
a) Typically this is an operating manual. Normally,
contents are:
i. Process description and process chemistry
ii. Design information (throughput, turndown ratio, on
stream factor, battery limit conditions, quality
specification of catalyst and chemicals, chemicals &
utilities specific consumption, details of
solid/liquid/gaseous effluents, material balance
summary)

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
iii. Detailed process description
iv. Description of operating limits and safety precautions
v. Effect of operating variables on product quality
vi. Normal operating procedure
vii. Preparation for initial start up
viii. Start up procedure
ix. Normal shutdown procedure
x. Emergency shutdown procedure
xi. Sampling, laboratory analysis and quality control
xii. Plant performance monitoring

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
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xiii. Safety systems: (gas detector locations, safety shower
locations, preventive measures, withdrawal of samples,
safe handling of volatile, corrosive and toxic materials,
major hazards, safety practices, fire fighting facilities,
personal protective equipment.)
xiv. Process interlocks
xv. Plant instrumentation control philosophy
xvi. Equipment list with design information
xvii. P&IDs

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
b) Process Flow Flagsheet

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
i. For the purpose of quick reference, it is necessary to
have compact flow sheets for refinery plant sections,
instead of referring to the P&IDs, which are
cumbersome and inconvenient to carry.
ii. Such compact flow sheets (flag sheets) indicating
process flow and major controls and safety systems
are useful for familiarization and training.
iii. Such flag sheets along with pocket operating
manuals are given to all operating personnel, and
serve as a quick reference for process safety
information for the refinery unit.

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
c) Process information network (PIN)
i. With the advent of computers and process software,
comprehensive process information network systems
have been developed, which are of immense use as a
source of process safety information.
ii. They depict through GUI and on real time basis, plant
control parameters like pressure, temperature, flow,
levels of process vessels and tanks etc., and show
their present values against set points.
iii. With appropriate audible alerts, these help to
determine hazardous conditions have in the plant

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
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iv.Graphical User Interface page

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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
2) Process Hazard Analysis
a) Refinery process plants are of high complexity both with
respect to process flow and process control.
b) The most effective method for carrying out process
hazard analysis is by conducting a Hazop.
c) HAZOP was developed by Lawley (1974) of ICI. Based on
early account by Elliott & Owen (1968).
d) Hazop studies are carried out by an experienced,
multidisciplinary team.
e) It includes a review of flowsheet, a plant layout,
equipment specification and a P&ID,
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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
f) Hazop process:
i. Intention
ii. Deviation
iii.Causes
iv. Consequences
a) Hazards
b) Operating difficulties
v. Safeguards
vi. Recommendations/actions

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g) HAZOP Guide Words

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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
3) Operating Procedures
a) Important aspects of an operating procedure that need to be
carefully reviewed are:
i. Process description and process chemistry
ii. Description of operating limits and safety precautions
iii. Normal operating procedure
iv. Preparation for initial start up
v. Start up procedure
vi. Normal shutdown procedure
vii. Emergency shutdown procedure

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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
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viii Safety systems: (gas detector locations, safety shower
locations, preventive measures, withdrawal of samples,
safe handling of volatile, corrosive and toxic materials,
major hazards, safety practices, fire fighting facilities,
personal protective equipment.)
ix Process interlocks
x Plant instrumentation control philosophy
xi Equipment list with design information
4) Employee Participation
a) Activities to be undertaken to involve employees in the
working of the plants / facilities :

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i. Written action plan to implement the employees'
participation.
ii. involvement in Internal Safety Audits and Job Safety
Analysis.
iii. Impart knowledge about operation of the plant,
including safety & health hazard associated with
products & work environment.
iv. Train employees on use of personal protective
equipment (PPE).
v. Keep employees informed about relevant safety &
health issues.
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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
vi. Floor level safety & health committees with
participation of employees & employer's
representatives to review safety & health related
issues of the plant.
vii. Written information about process, chemicals, MSDS
to be accessible to employees.
viii. Critical procedures & instructions to be in English and
a local language.
ix. Employees to be involved in management of change
related to process & equipment.

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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
5) Training
a) Plant personnel to be trained and retrained for
improving their understanding and up grading
skill based on identification of their training
needs.
b) Each employee, before operating a newly
assigned process, should be trained:
i. Operating procedures
ii. Operating limits

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
iii. Safety and health considerations
iv. Control measures to be taken if exposed
v. Safety systems and their functions
vi. Training on operating procedures & safe work
practices, emergency preparedness / disaster
management plan, safety procedures, work permit
system
vii. Action to be taken in the event of unwanted release
of hazardous chemicals / flammable material

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
c) Training to also include:
i. Current operating practice and changes that result
from changes in process chemicals, equipment and
facilities
ii. Control of hazards and safe work practices during
lockout / tagout, confined space entry, opening
process equipment and piping and maintenance.
6) Contractors
a) Contractor personnel to be trained in the work
practices to perform their job safely.

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
b) Contractors to organize construction work such that
there is no risk of accident or injury to workers.
c) Contract personnel are to be informed about the
known potential fire, explosion or toxic release
hazards and in the emergency preparedness plan.
d) Contractor must ensure that their personnel know
about safe work practices and use of PPEs with
appropriate records.
e) Contractor should ensure their personnel follow
safety rules.

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
f) Contractor should keep owner informed about any
unique hazard presented by their personnel's work.
g) Management should ensure for regular safety
inspection of contractor’s equipment
h) Contractor should assign workers jobs based on their
age, physique, state of health and skill.
i) Contractor should be made responsible for
enforcement of safety & health measures by their
personnel
j) Management should obtain information regarding
contractor’s safety performance before hiring.
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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
7) Pre-Startup Safety Review
a) Before a new or modified unit is started, a systematic
check should be made to ensure that:
i. Equipment has been installed properly
ii. Operating procedures have been reviewed
iii. Items needing attention from PHA's have been resolved
iv. Personnel have been trained.
b) Purpose of the review is to reduce chance of some item
being overlooked that could create a hazard

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
c) Management should perform a pre startup safety audit for:
i. New facilities,
ii. For modified facilities when the modification is significant
iii. Startup of existing facility / plant after turn around.
d) Pre startup safety review should confirm that construction is in
accordance with design specifications, safety, operating,
maintenance and emergency procedures.
e) For new facilities, PHA is performed and recommendations
implemented before start up.
f) Modified facilities meet the requirements of management of
change

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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
8) Mechanical integrity
a) Mechanical integrity program should be in place to
assure continued integrity of process equipment.
b) In line with the codes of practices
c) Identification and categorization of:
i. Equipment and instrumentation
ii. Inspection and tests
iii. Training of inspection personnel
iv. Testing and inspection frequencies
v. Development of maintenance procedures
vi. The establishment of criteria for acceptable test results

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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
vii. Documentation of test and maintenance results, and
viii. Documentation of manufacturer recommendations as to meantime to failure for
equipment and instrumentation.
d) Equipment data
i. List to be compiled for pressure vessels, storage tanks, process piping, relief and vent
systems, fire protection system components, emergency shut down systems, and
alarms and interlocks and pumps.
ii. List of equipment to be prioritized to determine which piece of equipment requires
closer scrutiny than others.
iii. Information to include material of construction, piping and instrumentation diagram,
electrical classification, relief system design and design basis, ventilation system design,
design codes and standards employed.

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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
9) Hot Work Permit
a) Types of permits:
i. Cold Work Permit
ii. Hot Work Permit
iii. Confined Space Entry
iv. Electrical isolation and Energisation permit
v. Height pass
b) Cold work permit:
i. Opening process machinery, blinding & deblinding, tightening of
flanges, hot bolting, inspection, painting

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
c) Hot work permit
i. Welding, grinding, gas cutting, burning, shot blasting,
soldering, chipping, excavation, open fire, use of certain
non-explosion proof equipment, entry and operation of
petrol or diesel driven vehicles or equipment in hazardous
area
ii. For excavation work regardless of the depth, precautions to
be taken for the underground facilities viz; sewers,
telephone lines, cables, pipelines etc

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
c) Confined space entry permit
i. This permit is required for the protection of personnel
entering a confined space such as vessels, boilers, storage
tanks, large diameter piping etc against hazards such as
oxygen deficiency, toxic and flammable materials, falling
objects, power driven equipment etc.
ii. Excavation more than 1.2 meter deep, entry on floating
roof tanks when the roof are more than 3 meter down from
the top, space located below ground level such as pits,
drain channels etc. also fall under the confined space
iii. Composite Permit may be used for the various jobs such as
hot work outside the confined space, entry to confined
space and cold / hot work inside the confined space.

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
d) Electrical isolation and energisation permit:
i. Before issuing any work permit, it is essential that the equipment /
facility to be worked on is electrically safe and electrical power is
isolated to the extent necessary for the safe conduct of the
authorized work.
e) Height pass
i. For working at height, e.g. painting tanks, structural work at elevation,
instrument work at elevation, maintenance work at elevation
ii. The personnel assigned such jobs should meet minimum health
requirements for carrying out such jobs.
f) For permit issue procedures, see OISD-105.

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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
10) Management of Change
a) Plants are modified or changed in order to:
i. Achieve higher efficiency
ii. Improve operability and safety
iii. Reliability, to accommodate technical changes etc.
b) Another objective of carrying out such modifications /
changes may be:
i. To prevent mishaps
ii. Improve utilisation and optimisation of facilities
iii. Reduce downtime
iv. Reduce risk to public, enhance knowledge of plants and process
activities.

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
c) In general, any modification shall cover the following as
minimum :
i. Origination of modification proposal.
ii. Design philosophy.
iii. Scrutiny and approval procedure / safety assessment.
iv. Execution of the modification job.
v. Training of the operating / maintenance personnel on proposed
modification.
vi. Commissioning.
vii. Updating of documents in line with the modification.
viii. Approved handing over / taking over procedure.
ix. Post commissioning review.
x. As built record.

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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
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d) The procedure should be established and documented
for implementing a change covering all the stages like
commissioning, operation inspection, maintenance
review of performance of the plant / facility.
11) Incident Investigation
a) An incident investigation is a critical feedback about the
system of control of a hazard.
b) This form of control is valuable as it helps prevent
recurrence of the incident.

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
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c) An incident is a failure in the control of any hazard that results in
un-planned event like fire, explosion, run away reaction release of
toxic or flammable material, injury or fatality.
d) A nearmiss incident is a little better situation in that it is a warning
given before actual injury.
e) A workplace incident is an indication that prevention was
ineffective and that prompt changes need to be made.
f) The incident investigator's job is to gather all available
information to essentially explain how the accident happened and
how the occurrence may be prevented.
g) The effectiveness of the investigation is enhanced by a well
written report. A written report is a permanent record of the
results of the investigation for communicating to within and
outside the organization.
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 PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
PETROLEUM REFINERY
12) Emergency Planning and Response
a) The objective of the emergency plan is to provide a
measure to contain and minimize the effects incidents
based on hazard analysis and consequences of identified
accident scenario.
b) On-site Emergency Plan:
i. Early warning/alarm system like telephone, walkie-talkie, break
glass system, fusible plugs, fire sirens . Fire sirens should have
distinctive signal for fire & other emergencies
ii. Immediate response Procedures / Measures by nominated
people / positions to perform the initial tasks

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iii. Manpower / Organogram and their responsibilities: by appointing
key personnel and defining their specific duties, which will be handy
in case of an emergency.
iv. The roles identified for the positions should be consistent with the
normal day-to-day responsibilities of the personnel.
v. Emergency Control Room should be set up in a safe location and
activated in case of an emergency to direct and coordinate the
operations to handle the emergency and provided with complete
communication facilities.
vi. The emergency plan must contain resource mobilisation scheme so
that key personnel will be able to activate the scheme to mobilise
the internal & external resources within shortest time available.

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vii. Mutual aid arrangements are to be worked out in the plan to
facilitate additional help in the event of fire fighting or in rescue
operation by way of rendering manpower, medical aid or fire
fighting equipment etc.
viii. In a major emergency, it is essential to evacuate non essential
personnel from affected area and a plan for evacuation should be
prepared. Non essential personnel should assemble at a
predesignated assembly point in case of an emergency.
ix. In case of a major emergency, safety measures to be taken should be
made known to the general public who are likely to be affected.
x. Mock drills activating the Emergency Preparedness Plan should be
conducted periodically for ensuring its efficacy during emergency.

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c) Off-site emergency plan
i. District authorities are responsible for preparing an off-site
emergency plan for industrial disasters and natural
calamities within the district. Management should
coordinate with district authorities to have such a plan
prepared for their unit, and update it from time to time.
ii. Participate in mock drills organized by district authorities.

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PSM ELEMENTS AS APPLIED TO
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13) Compliance Audits
a) Safety Audits are the periodic examination of the
functioning of safety system and is a feedback
mechanism for management. Three types:
i. Internal Safety Audit
ii. External Safety Audit
iii. Safety Management System Audit
b) Internal Safety Audit:
i. It is carried out by the personnel who are deeply involved in
the operation / maintenance of the facility. Therefore, such
audit can best bring out any shortcoming in the work area.

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ii. Process area, storage, handling and transportation facilities
should be audited once in a year.
iii. Audits should be carried out through a multidisciplinary team.
c) External Safety Audit (ESA)
i. External Safety Audits are carried out by a team of experts.
ii. The duration of the audit may be two to five days.
iii. Frequency of such audits is 2 to 4 years
iv. The audit team should give more emphasis on system audit as
safety survey is carried out by the internal safety audit team
v. Environment and occupational health aspects may also be
included in ESA
vi. Whenever, any recommendation cannot be implemented, specific
approval should be obtained from the Board of Directors.

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d) Safety Management System Audit
i. To ensure compliance to the Safety Management System, a
compliance audit should be carried out once in 3 years.
ii. Companies should develop their own methodology for
such audits.
iii. Care should be taken to select team members who have
adequate experience and training for auditing safety
management systems.
14) Trade Secrets
a) Trade secrets means any confidential formula,
pattern, process, device, information or compilation
of information that is used in the business.
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b) Employer has an advantage over competitors who do
not know or use it.
c) The information needed about a process or chemicals
must be made available to both employee and
contractor personnel so that they will understand any
hazard that may be present and what precautions are
necessary to protect them from exposure to these
hazards.
d) Confidentiality agreement may be made with the
supplier, employees and contractors.
e) Casual access to critical technical information about a
process may be limited.
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CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS
1) Hazard: a chemical or physical condition that has
the potential to cause damage to people,
property, or the environment.
2) Work place hazards:
a) Chemical hazards
b) Physical hazards
c) Biological hazards
d) Job design
e) Stress

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CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS
3) Chemical hazards include:
a) Hydrocarbon liquids
b) Acids and alkalis
c) Hydrocarbon vapors
d) Toxic gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen
sulfide
e) Hydrocarbon liquids and vapors that can catch fire or
explode

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4) Physical hazards include:
a) Machinery
b) Electrical power
c) Noise
d) Power and hand tools
e) Working and walking surfaces
f) Trip and fall hazards
g) Excavation
h) Ladders and scaffolds and working at height hazards
i) Heat and cold
j) Ventilation

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5) Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses,
insects, infected fellow workers. The risks run
from skin irritation and allergies to infections.
Dangers can come from:
a) Unclean restrooms
b) Mold and fungus
c) Bacteria
d) Insect stings
e) Animal bites
f) Poorly stored medical waste
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6) If the job is poorly designed, long term health problems can develop.
a) These problems can arise from simple things, like working for long
periods in an awkward position or having to make the same motions
over and over again.
b) Problems can come from:
i. Lighting
ii. Chairs
iii. Lifting
iv. Repeated movements
v. Stretching the body
vi. Computer screens

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7) Stress
a) Stress can lead to long-term health problems.
Headaches, anxiety, and impatience are early signs of
stress. Workplace causes of stress include:
i. Heavy workloads
ii. Lack of control over the pace of work
iii. Shiftwork
iv. Noise
v. Working by yourself
vi. Fear of job loss
vii. Conflict with the
viii. Employer

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1) Injuries to operating personnel
a) Hot burns
i. Steam / hot condensate
ii. Hot oil
iii. Hot gas
iv. Contact with hot surface
v. Flame impingement
b) Cold burns
i. Light ends vapor cloud

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2) Asphyxiation
a) Vessel and confined space entry
3) Toxic gas release
a) Sampling
b) Equipment leaks (CO / H2S)
c) Release from process vents
4) Oil spills
a) Equipment draining
b) Equipment failure

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5) Explosions & Fires
a) Vapor cloud explosions
i. When a large amount of flammable vaporizing liquid or gas
is rapidly released, a vapor cloud forms and disperses with
the surrounding air.
ii. The release can occur from a storage tank, process,
transport vessel, or pipeline.
iii. If this cloud is ignited before the cloud is diluted below its
lower flammability limit (LFL), a vapor cloud explosion or
flash fire will occur.

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b) Flash fires
i. A flash fire is the non explosive combustion of a vapor cloud
resulting from a release of flammable material into the open air.
ii. Major hazards from flash fires are from thermal radiation and
direct flame contact.
c) Physical explosion
i. When a vessel containing a pressurized gas ruptures, the resulting
stored energy is released.
ii. This energy can produce a shock wave and accelerate vessel
fragments.
iii. If the contents are flammable, it is possible the ignition of the
released gas could result in additional consequence effects such
as vapor cloud explosion or flash fires.

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d) BLEVE and fireball
i. A boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) occurs when
there is a sudden loss of containment of a pressure vessel
containing a superheated liquid or liquefied gas.
ii. The primary cause is usually an external flame impinging on the
shell of a vessel above the liquid level, weakening the container
and leading to sudden shell rupture.
iii. A pressure relief valve does not protect against this mode of
failure, since the shell failure is likely to occur at a pressure below
the set pressure of the relief system.
iv. The sudden containment failure allows the superheated liquid to
flash, typically increasing its volume 200 times.
v. This is sufficient to generate a pressure wave and fragments.
vi. If the released liquid is flammable, a fireball may result.

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e) Confined explosions
i. Confined explosions include deflagration or other sources
of rapid chemical reaction which are constrained within
vessels and buildings.
ii. Dust explosions and vapor explosions within low strength
vessels and buildings are one major category of confined
space explosion.
iii. Combustion reactions, thermal decompositions, or
runaway reactions within process vessels and equipment
are the other major category of confined explosions.
iv. Shock waves and projectiles are the major threat from
confined explosions.

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f) Pool fires
i. The primary effects of such fires are due to thermal
radiation from the flame source.
ii. Issues of intertank and interplant spacing, thermal
insulation, fire wall specification, etc., can be addressed on
the basis of specific consequence analysis for a range of
possible pool fire scenarios.
iii. If the flammable material is drained to safe location, a pool
fire is not possible. The important considerations are:
a. The liquid must be drained to safe area
b. The liquid must be covered to minimize vaporization
c. The drainage area must be far away from thermal radiation
fire sources

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d. Adequate fire protection must be provided
e. Consideration must be provided for containment and drainage
of fire water
f. Leak detection must be provided
g) Jet fires
i. Jet fires typically result from the combustion of a material
as it is being released from a pressurized process unit. The
main concern, similar to pool fires, is in local radiation
effects.
ii. The most common application of jet fire models is the
specification of exclusion zones around flares.

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END OF PRESENTATION

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