1.

1 Introduction to Cells
Essential idea: The evolution of multicellular organisms
allowed cell specialization and cell replacement.

The background image shows totipotent stem cells. These unspecialised cell will be divide
and some will become the cells that form heart muscle, neurones in the brain and
lymphocytes in the blood. These three types of specialised human cells are structurally very
different and perform certain functions much more efficiently than an unspecialised cell,
such as the embryonic cells above, could.

Another advantage that multicellular organisms have over unicellular organisms is that
severe damage to a cell does not mean the end of an organism. Stem cell persist through
the life of a multi-cellular organism, this enables organisms to digest severely damaged cells
and replace them, i.e. wounds can be healed.

By Chris Paine
https://bioknowledgy.weebly.com/
Understandings
Statement Guidance
1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living organisms are
composed of cells.
1.1.U2 Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all Students are expected to be able to name and
functions of life in that cell. briefly explain these functions of life: nutrition,
metabolism, growth, response, excretion,
homeostasis and reproduction.
1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is important in the
limitation of cell size.
1.1.U4 Multicellular organisms have properties that
emerge from the interaction of their cellular
components.
1.1.U5 Specialized tissues can develop by cell
differentiation in multicellular organisms.
1.1.U6 Differentiation involves the expression of some
genes and not others in a cell’s genome.
1.1.U7 The capacity of stem cells to divide and
differentiate along different pathways is necessary
in embryonic development and also makes stem
cells suitable for therapeutic uses.
Applications and Skills
Statement Guidance
1.1.A1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical
examples, including striated muscle, giant algae
and aseptate fungal hyphae.
1.1.A2 Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium and Chlorella or Scenedesmus are suitable
one named photosynthetic unicellular organism. photosynthetic unicells, but Euglena should be
avoided as it can feed heterotrophically.
1.1.A3 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and
one other named condition.
1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from
specially created embryos, from the umbilical cord
blood of a new-born baby and from an adult’s own
tissues.
1.1.S1 Use of a light microscope to investigate the
structure of cells and tissues, with drawing of cells. Scale bars are useful as a way of indicating
Calculation of the magnification of drawings and actual sizes in drawings and micrographs.
the actual size of structures and ultrastructures
shown in drawings or micrographs. (Practical 1)
1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living
organisms are composed of cells.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6CG2Zeh9
twI
Source: http://www.engr.uconn.edu/alarm/research?id=63
1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living
organisms are composed of cells.
Cell theory states that:
• All living things are composed of cells (or cell products)
• The cell is the smallest unit of life
• Cells only arise from pre-existing cells

Source: http://www.engr.uconn.edu/alarm/research?id=63
1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living
organisms are composed of cells.
All living things are
composed of cells
(or cell products)

Longitudinal section of a root tip of Maize (Zea mays)

by Science and Plants for Schools on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/bNNM6M
1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living
organisms are composed of cells.
The cell is the smallest unit
of life
Specialized structures within cells
(organelles) carry out different
functions. Organelles cannot
survive alone.

This micrograph of a Paramecium

shows the 2 contractile vacuoles,
the oral groove with the
formation of a new food vacuole
at its end, and the overall
surrounding cilia.

Source: http://www.dr-ralf-wagner.de/
1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living
organisms are composed of cells.
Cells only arise from pre-existing
cells:
• Cells multiply through division
• All life evolved from simpler
ancestors
• Mitosis results in genetically identical
diploid daughter cells
• Meiosis generates haploid gametes
(sex cells)

4-cell stage of a sea biscuit by Bruno Vellutini on Flickr

(CC) http://flic.kr/p/daWnnS
1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living
organisms are composed of cells.
Common features of cells:
• Every living cell is surrounded by a membrane,
which separates the cell contents from everything
else outside.
• Cells contain genetic material which stores all of the
instructions needed for the cell’s activities.
• Many of the activities are chemical reactions,
catalyzed by enzymes produced inside the cell.
• Cells have their own energy release system
(mitochondria) that powers all of the cell’s activities.
4-cell stage of a sea biscuit by Bruno Vellutini on Flickr
(CC) http://flic.kr/p/daWnnS
1.1.A1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples,
including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae.

Red blood cells

• Biconcave disks
• Carry oxygen to
different tissue
• Lack a nucleus
• Lack cellular organelles
• Cannot synthesize
proteins

http://www.business-opportunities.biz/2014/04/24/no-more-blood-banks-growing-red-blood-cells/
1.1.A1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples,
including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae.

Striated muscle
• challenges the idea that a cell has
one nucleus
• Muscle cells have more than one
nucleus per cell
• Muscle Cells called fibres can be
very long (300mm)
• They are surrounded by a single
plasma membrane but they are
multi-nucleated (many nuclei).
• This does not conform to the
standard view of a small single
nuclei within a cell

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Skeletal_striated_muscle.jpg
1.1.A1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples,
including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae.

Aseptate fungal hyphae

• challenges the idea that a cell is a single
unit.
• Fungal hyphae are again very large with
many nuclei and a continuous cytoplasm
• The tubular system of hyphae form dense
networks called mycelium
• Like muscle cells they are multi-nucleated
• They have cell walls composed of chitin
• The cytoplasm is continuous along the
hyphae with no end cell wall or
membrane

Source: http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/pathogengroups/pages/introfungi.aspx
1.1.A1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples,
including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae.

Giant algae (Acetabularia)

• Acetabularia is a single-celled organism
that challenges both the idea that cells
must be simple in structure and small in
size
• Gigantic in size (5 – 100mm)
• Complex in form, it consists of three
anatomical parts:
– Bottom rhizoid (that resembles a set of short
roots)
– Long stalk
– Top umbrella of branches that may fuse into a
cap
• The single nucleus is located in the
rhizoid

Source: http://deptsec.ku.edu/~ifaaku/jpg/Inouye/Inouye_01.html
1.1.U2 Organisms consisting of only one cell carry
out all functions of life in that cell.
You probably know: In this course the functions are refined:
• Movement • Metabolism - the web of all the enzyme-catalysed
reactions in a cell or organism, e.g. respiration
• Reproduction
• Response - Living things can respond to and
• Sensitivity interact with the environment
• Homeostasis • Homeostasis - The maintenance and regulation of
• Growth internal cell conditions, e.g. water and pH
• • Growth - Living things can grow or change size /
Respiration
shape
• Excretion • Excretion – the removal of metabolic waste
• Nutrition • Reproduction - Living things produce offspring,
either sexually or asexually
• Nutrition – feeding by either the synthesis of
organic molecules (e.g. photosynthesis) or the
absorption of organic matter
1.1.U2 Organisms consisting of only one cell carry
out all functions of life in that cell.

Remembering the functions of life

An easy way to remember Metabolism, Response, Homeostasis,
Growth, Reproduction, Excretion and Nutrition is:

“MR H GREN”

(each letter is a function of life)

Source: http://www.dr-ralf-wagner.de/
1.1.A2 Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium
and one named photosynthetic unicellular organism.
How does this paramecium show the functions of life?

Source: http://umanitoba.ca/Biology/BIOL1030/Lab1/biolab1_3.html#Ciliophora
1.1.A2 Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium
and one named photosynthetic unicellular organism.
Excretion – the plasma Homeostasis – contractile vacuole fill up Response – the
membrane control the entry with water and expel it through the plasma wave action of
and exit of substances membrane to manage the water content the cilia moves
including expulsion of the
metabolic waste paramecium in
response to
changes in the
Metabolism –
environment,
most
e.g. towards
metabolic
food.
pathways
happen in the
cytoplasm

Source: http://umanitoba.ca/Biology/BIOL1030/Lab1/biolab1_3.html#Ciliophora

Nutrition – food vacuoles Growth – after consuming Reproduction – The

contain organisms the and assimilating biomass nucleus can divide to
paramecium has from food the paramecium support cell division by
consumed will get larger until it divides. mitosis, reproduction is
often asexual
1.1.A2 Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium
and one named photosynthetic unicellular organism.
How does this algae show the functions of life?

Source: http://www.algae.info/Algaecomplete.aspx
1.1.A2 Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium
and one named photosynthetic unicellular organism.
Excretion – the plasma Reproduction – The nucleus can divide to
Response – the
membrane control the support cell division, by mitosis (these
wave action of
entry and exit of cells are undergoing cytokinesis)
the cilia moves
substances including the
the algae in
diffusion out of waste
response to
oxygen
changes in the
environment,
Metabolism –
e.g. towards
most
light.
metabolic
pathways
happen in the
cytoplasm Homeostasis –
contractile
vacuole fill up
Nutrition –
with water and
photosynthes
expel it through
is happens
the plasma
inside the
Source: http://www.algae.info/Algaecomplete.aspx membrane to
chloroplasts
manage the
to provide the Growth – after consuming and assimilating water content
algae with biomass from food the algae will get larger until
food it divides.
1.1.S1 Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of
cells and tissues, with drawing of cells. Calculation of the
magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures and
ultrastructures shown in drawings or micrographs. (Practical 1)
Microscopes are best learned through experience. The
below links are primarily for those without access to a
microscope.

Source: https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Dinoflagellata

Virtual microscope: http://www.udel.edu/biology/ketcham/microscope/scope.html

Learn about Microscopes: http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=BIO905

1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is
important in the limitation of cell size.
1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is
important in the limitation of cell size.
1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is
important in the limitation of cell size.
1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is
important in the limitation of cell size.
Cells and tissues specialised for gas or The cell must consequently divide in order to restore a
material exchange will increase their viable SA:Vol ratio and survive.
surface area to optimise the transfer of • A represents a small single celled organism
materials, e.g. microvilli (below) in the • B a large single celled organism
small intestine • C multicellular organism

A B C
1.1.U3 Surface area to volume ratio is
important in the limitation of cell size.
In summary:
• The rate of metabolism of a cell is a function of its mass / volume
• The rate of material exchange in and out of a cell is a function of its surface
area
• As the cell grows, volume increases faster than surface area (leading to a
decreased SA:Vol ratio)
• If the metabolic rate is greater than the rate of exchange of vital materials and
wastes, the cell will eventually die
• Hence the cell must consequently divide in order to restore a viable SA:Vol
ratio and survive
• Cells and tissues specialized for gas or material exchange (e.g. alveoli) will
increase their surface area to optimize the transfer of materials

Extension: Can you think of any exceptions? See if you can find out about
unusually large cells and how they are adapted to survive.
1.1.U4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge
from the interaction of their cellular components.
Emergent properties arise from the interaction of component
parts. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Multicellular organisms are capable of completing functions that
individual cells could not undertake - this is due to the
interaction between cells producing new functions.
1.1.U4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge
from the interaction of their cellular components.
Science traditionally has been taken a reductionist approach to solving
problems and developing theories. Systems Biology uses inductive thinking as
it is realised the importance of emergent properties, whether it be the
interaction of genes, enzymes working together in a metabolic pathway, or
cells forming tissues, different tissues forming organs, in turn forming organ
systems and then the organism itself. At each level emergent properties arise.
1.1.U4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge
from the interaction of their cellular components.
As a model consider the electric light bulb. The bulb is the system and is
composed of a filament made of tungsten, a metal cup, and a glass container.
We can study the parts individually how they function and the properties they
posses. These would be the properties of :
• Tungsten
• Metal cup
• Glass container

When studied individually they do not allow the

prediction of the properties of the light bulb. Only
when we combine them to form the bulb can these
properties be determined. There is nothing
supernatural about the emergent properties rather it is
simply the combination of the parts that results in new
properties emerging. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gluehlampe_01_KMJ.jpg
1.1.U6 Differentiation involves the expression of some
genes and not others in a cell’s genome.
• All (diploid) cells of an individual
organisms share an identical genome -
each cell contains the entire set of
genetic instructions for that organism
• BUT not all genes are expressed
(activated) in all cells
• In (totipotent) embryonic stem cells the
entire genome is active
• Newly formed cells receive signals which
deactivate (or more rarely activate)
genes, e.g. a skin cell does not need to
be able to produce haemoglobin (the
pigment in red blood cells that carries
oxygen)
Screenshot from this excellent tutorial: http://www.ns.umich.edu/stemcells/022706_Intro.html
1.1.U6 Differentiation involves the expression of some
genes and not others in a cell’s genome.
• Extension: Active genes are usually
packaged in an expanded and
accessible form (euchromatin), while
inactive genes are mainly packaged
in a condensed form
(heterochromatin)
• The fewer active genes a cell
possesses the more specialised it will
become
• As a result of gene expression cell
differentiation begins: the cell’s
metabolism and shape changes to
carry out a specialised function.
Screenshot from this excellent tutorial: http://www.ns.umich.edu/stemcells/022706_Intro.html
1.1.U5 Specialized tissues can develop by cell
differentiation in multicellular organisms.
• In humans 220 distinct
highly specialised cell
types have been
recognised
• All specialised cells and
the organs constructed
from them have
developed as a result of
differentiation

Source: http://images.wisegeek.com/types-of-human-cells.jpg
1.1.U7 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along
different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and
also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.
Stem cells are unspecialised cells that can:
• Can continuously divide and replicate
• Have the capacity to differentiate into
specialised cell types

Totipotent
Can differentiate into any type of cell.

Pluripotent
Can differentiate into many
types of cell. (embryonic stem cells)

Multipotent
Can differentiate into a few closely-related
types of cell. (adult stem cells and cord blood
stem cells)

Unipotent
Image from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell
Can regenerate but can only differentiate into
their associated cell type
(e.g. liver stem cells can only make liver cells).
1.1.U7 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along
different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and
also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.
Learn about stem cells using the tutorials

http://ns.umich.edu/stemcells/022706_Intro.html

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/stemcells/scintro/

A Stem Cell Story

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2-3J6JGN-_Y
1.1.U7 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one
other named condition.

Stargardt's macular dystrophy

The • Affects around one in 10,000 children

problem • Recessive genetic (inherited) condition
• The mutation causes an active transport protein on photoreceptor cells
to malfunction
• The photoreceptor cells degenerate
• the production of a dysfunctional protein that cannot perform energy
transport
• that causes progressive, and eventually total, loss of central vision
The • Embryonic stem cells are treated to divide and differntiate to become
treatment retinal cells
• The retinal cells are injected into the retina
• The retinal cells attach to the retina and become functional
• Central vision improves as a result of more functional retinal cells
The future • This treatment is still in at the stage of limited clinical trials, but will
likely be in usage in the future
1.1.U7 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one
other named condition.

Learn about stem cell therapies using the tutorials

http://media.hhmi.org/biointeractive/click/Stem_Cell_Therapies/01.html
1.1.U7 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one
other named condition.

Leukemia
The • Cancer of the blood or bone marrow, resulting in abnormally high levels
problem of poorly-functioning white blood cells.
The • Hematopoetic Stem Cells (HSCs) are harvested from bone marrow,
treatment peripheral blood or umbilical cord blood
• Chemotherapy and radiotherapy used to destroy the diseased white
blood cells
• New white blood cells need to be replaced with healthy cells.
• HSCs are transplanted back into the bone marrow
• HSCs differentiate to form new healthy white blood cells
The • The use of a patient’s own HSCs means there is far less risk of immune
benefit rejection than with a traditional bone marrow transplant.
1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially
created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born
baby and from an adult’s own tissues.
Comparison of stem cell sources
Embryo Cord blood Adult
Ease of extraction Can be obtained Easily obtained and Difficult to obtain as
from excess stored. Though there are very few
embryos generated limited quantities and are buried deep
by IVF programs. available in tissues

Ethics of the Can only be Umbilical cord is Adult patient can

extraction obtained by removed at birth give permission for
destruction of an and discarded cells to be extracted
embryo whether or not stem
cells are harvested

Growth potential Almost unlimited Reduced potential (compared to embryonic

cells)

Tumor risk Higher risk of Lower risk of development

development
1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially
created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born
baby and from an adult’s own tissues.
Comparison of stem cell sources
Embryo Cord blood Adult
Differentiation Can differentiate into Limited capacity to Limited capacity to
any cell type differentiate differentiate
(without inducement (dependent on the
only naturally divide source tissue)
into blood cells)

Genetic damage Less chance of genetic damage than adult Due to accumulation
cells of mutations
through the life of
the adult genetic
damage can occur

Compatibility Stem cells are not Fully compatible with the patient as the
genetically identical stem cells are genetically identical
to the patient
1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially
created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born
baby and from an adult’s own tissues.

Arguments for Therapeutic Cloning

• Stem cell research may pave the way for future discoveries and beneficial
technologies that would not have occurred if their use had been banned
• May be used to cure serious diseases or disabilities with cell therapy
(replacing bad cells with good ones)
• Transplants are less likely to be rejected as they are cells which are
genetically identical to the parent
• Transplants do not require the death of another human
• Stem cells can be taken from embryos that have stopped developing and
would have died anyway (e.g. abortions)
• Cells are taken at a stage when the embryo has no nervous system and
can arguably feel no pain
• Stem cells can be created without the need for fertilisation and
destruction of ‘natural’ human embryos – induced pluripotent stem cells
1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially
created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born
baby and from an adult’s own tissues.

Arguments Against Therapeutic Cloning

• Involves the creation and destruction of human embryos (at what point
do we afford the right to life?)
• Embryonic stem cells are capable of continued division and may develop
into cancerous cells and cause tumors
• More embryos are generally produced than are needed, so excess
embryos are killed
• With additional cost and effort, alternative technologies may fulfill
similar roles (e.g. nuclear reprogramming of differentiated cell lines)
• Religious or moral objections due to the ‘playing God’ argument.
• The embryo which is created could potentially be used in IVF and
develop into a human fetus, so are we creating human life to destroy it?
• Although cloning humans reproductively is illegal, this has not been
ratified by all nations. Potential for a race to clone the first human.
1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially
created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born
baby and from an adult’s own tissues.
1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially
created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born
baby and from an adult’s own tissues.

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Bibliography / Acknowledgments

Jason de Nys