In SITU STRESSES .

11
INTRODUCTION

We Will
Consider this in
the Next Chapter
INTRODUCTION
 Soils are multiphase systems. They consists of solid
particles enclosing continuous voids which contain
water and/or air.

Air

Solid

Solid

 When an external load is applied to soil it will be

carried jointly by the three systems, solid, water, air.
 However, it is difficult, if not impossible to analyze
such multiphase system.
 When the soil is fully saturated, then only water is
presented in the voids and the problem becomes
relatively simple.
 When an external load is applied to saturated soil it
will be carried jointly by the two systems, solid grains
and water in the pores.
F
 The increase in pressure within
the pore water causes drainage
(flow out of the soil), and the
load is transferred to the solid
grains. The rate of drainage
depends on the permeability of
the soil.
 If by any mean we can find the part of the load carried
by the water for a given external load, then we can
find the part carried by the solids.

 This is the theme of the Principle of Effective Stress.

In other word the principle of effective stress
determines the effect of a pore pressure on the
behavior of a soil with a given TOTAL STRESS.

 It is probably the single most important concept in

soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering.

 The compressibility and shearing resistance of a soil

depend to a great extent on the effective stress.
 The concept of effective stress is significant in
solving geotechnical engineering problems, such as:
Bearing capacity and settlement of Lateral earth pressure
foundations on retaining structures

Stability of earth slopes

THE PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS (P.E.S.)
 This principle was based on some experimental data
with some intuition. It states that:
  / u (1)
Where
  Total normal stress
   Effective normal stress
u  Pore water pressure
 Eq. 1 is more of a working hypothesis than being a
physical law.
 Actually Terzaghi (1925, 1936) arrived at Eq. 1 from
the results of laboratory experiments.
 Many attempts have been exercised in examining the
validity of the concept but no one is conclusive.
.Important Remarks (Facts) about P.E.S
The behavior of soils is solely controlled by the value
of   , therefore in engineering   is what matter
because all measurable effects of a change of stress,
such as:
• COMPRESSIBILITY
• DISTRORION
• SHEAR STRENGTH

are exclusively due to changes in the effective stress.

If there are two soils with the same structure and
mineralogy, there behavior will be the same if they are
subjected to the same effective stress. (The following
example will demonstrate this).
  Cannot be measured, it can only be calculated.
Example
Consider two sediments of the same soil, (a) an estuarine
sediment and (b) a deep-sea sediment. The unit weight is 17
kN/m3. Calculate the vertical effective stress:

m 104

 v  v
m1 m1
)a( )b(

 v   v  u  v   v  u
  .z   w . z   .z   w .z
 17 *1 - 9.807 *1  [9.807 *10 4  17 *1] - 9.807 * (10 4  1)
 7.2kN/m 2  7.2kN/m 2
The two sediments have the same value of effective stress. Hence
if they have the same structure and mineralogy, they will have the
same engineering properties.
Theoretical Basis for the Effective Stress Principle
Area
A  As  Aw  Aa (2) F
A = Total Area
As = Area of solid
Aw = Area of water
Aa = Area of air
Force
F  Fs  Fw  Fa (3)
F = Total applied force
Fs = Portion of force carried by solid
Fw = Portion of force carried by water
Fa = Portion of force carried by air
F Fs Fw Fa
    (4)
A A A A
F F Fa
Let ps  s , pw  w , pa  (5)
As Aw Aa
 Substituting Eq. (5) into Eq. (4)
As Aw Aa
  ps  pw  pa (6)
A A A
As Aa Aw
Let  as ,  ,  1-(χ  as ) (7) Refer to Eq. 2
A A A
Substituting Eq. (7) into Eq. (6) yields

  as ps  (1    as ) pw  pa (8)
The term asps is called intergranular stress. It is not
precisely equal to the effective stress.
Sometimes, in granular material effective stress is
taken to be equal to the intergranular stress.
However, this is not true, because the grain-to-grain
contact area may be very small and intergranular
stress will be extremely high and hence greater than
the effective stress.
Taking asps to be effective stress we have
     (1    as ) pw  pa (9)
For fully saturated soil   0 , and
     (1  as ) pw (10)
But as is usually very small , and hence Eq. (10) can be
approximat ed as
 u (11)

For dry soil u = 0, and   (12)

 Instead of pw we use u as it is conventional in soil
mechanics.
 Effective stress is approximately the force per unit
area carried by soil skeleton.
EVALUATION OF EFFECTIVE STRESS
We now know the importance of effective stress and
that it is responsible for soil behavior and the dilemma
that we cannot measure it.
However, as can be seen in Eq. 1, if we can find  and
u, then /
  u (13)
Therefore, our job now is to find  and u.
I. Determination of total stress, 
a. No external load is applied
   .z (14)
Where
g = Unit weight of the soil, the unit weight of the soil
may be, wet, saturated, dry. (This depends on the
degree of saturation of soil).
 z = The vertical distance from the surface to the point
at which  is evaluated.
 in Eq. 14 is called the BODY STRESS because it is
generated by the mass located upon by gravity in the
body. Also it is usually refereed to as OVERBURDEN.

b. If an external load is applied

In this case the total stress at depth z is given by
   .z   (15)
Where
 is the stress due to the external load at depth z
excluding the weight of soil i.e. z. We will discuss
in the following chapter different ways for
evaluating  .
 II. Determination of p.w.p, u

a. No external load is applied

u   w .z (16)
Where
w = Unit weight of water
Therefore, by substituting Eq. 15 and Eq.16 into Eq.14,
we get
 /  (   w )z (17)

b. No external load is applied, but there is steady

state seepage
From Bernoulli's equation u   w (h - z)
We find h from Laplace’s equation
We use the flow net
c. External load is applied
:This will be covered in Geotechnical Engineering II such that
i. Fully Undrained Condition
We find Skempton’s p.w.p parameters A and B in the
laboratory and to use them in evaluating u in the field. A
and B are discussed in Geotechnical Engineering II.
ii. Consolidation Condition
If we have partially drained condition in (Transient
flow). Then it is the Theory of Consolidation which
enables us to keep trace of u and hence   . This
theory will be discussed in details in Geotechnical
Engineering II.
As can be seen case (a) is very simple and (c) is
treated in CE 481. Since by now we have a
background in seepage, we will next discuss case (b).
Stresses in Saturated Soil in the Static Case .1
The rate of water supply is kept constant.
 /  (   w )z

   .z
/

At point A,
• Total Stress: sA = H1 gw
• Pore water pressure: uA = H1 gw
• Effective stress: s’A= 0

At point B,
• Total Stress: sB = H1 gw + H2 gsat
• Pore water pressure: uB = (H1 + H2) gw at Point A

• Effective stress: s’B= H2(gsat – gw) = H2 g’

at Point C
At point C,
• Total Stress: sC = H1 gw + z gsat at Point B
• Pore water pressure: uC = (H1 + z) gw
• Effective stress: s’C= z(gsat – gw) = z g’
Example 1
Calculate the total, neutral, and effective stresses at
elevation A when:
a. The water table is at elevation A.
b. The water table rises to elevation B.
The saturated unit weight is 19.62 kN/m3

Solution
.a
     u  19.62  5  0  98.1 kPa

.b
  (9.81 2)  (19.62  5)  117 .7 kPa

u  9.81 7  68.7 kPa

   117 .7  68.7  49.0 kPa

Example 2
Plot the variation of total, effective vertical stresses, and pore
water pressure with depth for the soil profile shown below.
Solution
Within a soil layer, the unit weight is constant, and therefore the
stresses vary linearly. Therefore, it is adequate if we compute the
values at the layer interfaces and water table location, and join
them by straight lines.
 s
s Diagram
Example 3
Plot the variation of total and effective vertical
stresses, and pore water pressure with depth for the
soil profile shown below.
 (kPa) u (kPa)   (kPa)
Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage .2
In case of seepage the effective stress at any point in a soil mass
will differ from that in the static case.

Note: For
illustration we
consider simple z
1D case

Therefore the effective stress decreases when there is upward

seepage. It decreases by exactly the increase in p.w.p.
Quick Condition (Boiling)
For the case of upward seepage, what happen if the
hydraulic gradient gradually increased. At a certain
value of hydraulic gradient the effective stress   will be
zero (Note that   cannot be less than zero).


z   iz  w  0 ic 
w

ic is called the CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT. It

is the value of I when a quick condition occurs.
Recall that Gs  1

   sub  w
1 e Note: fully saturated soil
 Gs  1
ic 
1 e
Remarks
The approach we just used to obtain ic is based on the
premise that quick conditions occur when   at the
BOTTOM of the soil column is zero.
Each point of the soil column has its own ic. However
ic for the point at the bottom will be the first one to
occur since it has the largest gradient all times.
For most soils 0.9 < ic < 1.1 with an average of 1.0.
Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage .3
,At A
• Total Stress: sA = H1 gw
• Pore water pressure: uA = H1 gw
• Effective stress: s’A= sA - uA = 0
At B,
• Total Stress: sB = H1 gw + H2 gsat
• Pore water pressure: uB = (H1 + H2 - h) gw
• Effective stress: s’B= H2(gsat – gw) + h gw
At C,
• Total Stress: sC = H1 gw + z gsat
• Pore water pressure: uC = (H1 + z – h/H2 z) gw
= (H1 + z – i z) gw
• Effective stress: s’C= z(gsat – gw) + iz gw
= zg’ + iz gw
Static Case s’C = z g’

Upward Seepage

Downward Seepage s’ C
Example 4
:A section through a dam is shown across. Determine
A. The p.w.p. at points 1,3, and 4
B. The effective stress at point 2 if the saturated unit weight for the
soil is 18 kN/m3.

,h = 6.3 m , Nd = 10
1.6 Datum
h =6.3/10 = 0.63 m 6.3
hT (1)  6.3  0.3* 0.63  6.1m
9.4
hT ( 2)  6.3  1* 0.63  5.67 m 17.2

hT ( 3)  6.3  5* 0.63  3.15m

hT ( 4)  6.3  7* 0.63  1.89m

.A u   w (hT  Z ) .B
 (2 )   ( 2)  u( 2)
u(1)  9.81(6.1  (1.6))  75.54kPa
u( 2)  9.81(5.67  (9.4))  147.84kPa
u(3)  9.81(3.15  (17.2))  199.63kPa
u( 4 )  9.81(1.89  (1.6))  34.24kPa
 (2 )   9.81 6.3  18  9.4  147.84
 378.84kPa
Example 5
A section through a sheet-pile wall which we have considered in the
previous chapter is shown below. Determine:-
A. The effective stress at points (a and b) if the soil has a unit weight
of 18 kN/m3.
B. What depth of water behind the sheet-pile wall (i.e. above the
upstream ground surface) will cause a quick condition at point (a).

6m

5m

10 m Datum
2m

b 5m

a 12 m
:Solution , H = 11 m, Nd = 8
h =11/8 = 1.375 m
.A 6m

Point (a)
 ( a )  2  9.81  5  18  109.62 kPa 5m

10 m Datum
hT ( a )  11  7*1.375  1.375m 2m

u( a )   w (hT ( a )  Z ( a ) ) b 5m

u( a )  9.81(1.375  (7))  82.16 kPa a 12 m

 (a )   ( a )  u( a )  109.62  82.16

 (a )  27.46 kPa
.B
Point (b) For quick condition at point (a) we have  (a )  0
 ( b )  6  9.81  10  18  238.86 kPa  ( a )  u( a )  0 or u( a )   ( a )  109.62
hT ( b )  11  2*1.375  8.25m ua (QC ) 109.62
hT ( a )( QC )   Z(a)   7  4.174m
u( b )   w (hT ( b )  Z ( b ) ) w 9.81
h
u( b )  9.81(8.25  (5))  130 kPa 4.174  h  7   h  33.4m
8
 (b )   ( b )  u( b )  238.86  130 The depth of water behind the wall
 (b )  368.86 kPa  33.4  5  28.4m
SEEPAGE FORCE
We have seen in the preceding sections that the
effective stress at a point in a soil layer would increase
or decrease due to seepage.
For the static case the effective stress at depth z
measured from the surface of the soil layer is given by
    .z (*)
Therefore, the effective force on an area A is

P1   .z. A (**)

If there is an upward seepage of water in the vertical
direction through the same soil layer, the effective
force on an area A at a depth z is given by,

P2  ( .z  i.z. w ) A (* * *)

 Hence, the decrease in the total force because of
seepage is

It is often convenient to express the seepage force per

unit volume. Hence the seepage force per unit volume
of soil is

Remarks
Flow nets can be used to find i at any point and, thus,
seepage force per unit volume of soil. This is
important in analyzing the stability of structures where
heave is of a problem.
In an isotropic soils, the force acts in the same
direction as the direction of flow.
SEEPAGE FORCE
Static (Hydrostatic)

s’C = z g’

Upward Seepage

Downward Seepage

s’C