Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology

Eleventh Edition

Chapter 1
An Introduction to Anatomy
and Physiology

Lecture Presentation by
Deborah A. Hutchinson
Seattle University

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Learning Outcomes
1-1 Describe how to use the text and art to master learning.
1-2 Define anatomy and physiology, explain the relationship
between these sciences, and describe various specialties of each
discipline.
1-3 Identify the major levels of organization in organisms, from the
simplest to the most complex, and identify the major components
of each organ system.
1-4 Describe the origins of anatomical and physiological terms,
and explain the significance of Terminologia Anatomica.

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 Learning Outcomes
1-5 Use anatomical terms to describe body regions, body
sections, and relative positions.
1-6 Identify the major body cavities of the trunk and their
subdivisions, and describe the functions of each.
1-7 Explain the concept of homeostasis.
1-8 Describe how negative feedback and positive feedback are
involved in homeostatic regulation.

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 1-1 Using the Text and Art
 Study the text and corresponding art together
 Each topic is arranged into a section
 Text-art integration ensures that figures are close to the
relevant lines of text
 Learning outcomes are educational objectives that
appear at the beginning of each chapter
– Based on a learning classification scheme

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Figure 1–1 A Conceptual Framework for Learning.

Applying and
describing

Synthesizing Analyzing
and and
creating explaining

Evaluating
and measuring

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 1-2 Anatomy and Physiology
 Anatomy
– Describes the structures of the body
• What they are made of
• Where they are located
• Associated structures
 Physiology
– Is the study of
• Functions of anatomical structures
• Individual and cooperative functions

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 1-2 Anatomy and Physiology
 Human anatomy
– Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines
large, visible structures
• Surface anatomy: exterior features
• Regional anatomy: body areas
• Sectional anatomy: cross sections
• Systemic anatomy: organ systems
• Clinical anatomy: medical specialties
• Developmental anatomy: from conception to
adulthood, including embryology

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 1-2 Anatomy and Physiology
 Human anatomy
– Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules
• Cytology: study of cells
• Histology: study of tissues

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 1-2 Anatomy and Physiology
 Human physiology
– Cell physiology: functions of cells
– Organ physiology: functions of specific organs
– Systemic physiology: functions of organ systems
– Pathological physiology: effects of diseases on organs
or systems

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 1-2 Anatomy and Physiology
 A patient may present with
– Signs (such as a fever)
– Symptoms (such as tiredness)
 Physicians use the scientific method to reach a diagnosis
by evaluating observations
– Form a hypothesis
– Test the hypothesis by collecting and analyzing data

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 1-3 Levels of Organization
 Chemical level
– Atoms are the smallest stable units of matter
– Molecules consist of groups of atoms
 Cellular level
– Cells are the smallest living units in the body
 Tissue level
– A tissue is a group of cells working together
 Organ level
– Organs are made of two or more tissues working
together

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 1-3 Levels of Organization
 Organ system level
– An organ system is a group of interacting organs
– Humans have 11 organ systems
 Organism level
– An individual life form is an organism

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Figure 1–2 Levels of Organization (Part 1 of 4).

Cellular Level

Chemical Level

Heart muscle
cell
Protein filaments
Atoms in combination Complex protein molecule

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Figure 1–2 Levels of Organization (Part 2 of 4).

Organ system Organism

level level
Organ Level
Tissue Level

Cardiac muscle The heart

tissue
The
cardiovascular
system

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Figure 1–2 Levels of Organization (Part 3 of 4).

THE ORGAN SYSTEMS

Integumentary Skeletal Muscular Nervous Endocrine Cardiovascular

Major Organs Major Organs Major Organs Major Organs Major Organs Major Organs
• Skin • Bones • Skeletal muscles • Brain • Pituitary gland • Heart
• Hair • Cartilages and associated • Spinal cord • Thyroid gland • Blood
• Sweat glands • Associated tendons • Peripheral nerves • Pancreas • Blood vessels
• Nails ligaments • Sense organs • Adrenal glands
• Bone marrow Functions • Gonads Functions
Functions • Provides movement Functions • Endocrine tissues in • Distributes blood
• Protects against Functions • Provides protection • Directs immediate other systems cells, water, and
environmental • Provides support and support for responses to stimuli dissolved materials
hazards and protection for other tissues • Coordinates or Functions including nutrients,
• Helps regulate body other tissues • Generates heat that moderates activities • Directs long-term waste products,
temperature • Stores calcium and maintains body of other organ changes in the oxygen, and
• Provides sensory other minerals temperature systems activities of other carbon dioxide
information • Forms blood cells • Provides and organ systems • Distributes heat
interprets sensory • Adjusts metabolic and assists in
information about activity and energy control of body
external conditions use by the body temperature
• Controls many
structural and
functional changes
during development
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Figure 1–2 Levels of Organization (Part 4 of 4).

THE ORGAN SYSTEMS

Lymphatic Respiratory Digestive Urinary Male Reproductive Female Reproductive

Major Organs Major Organs Major Organs Major Organs Major Organs Major Organs
• Spleen • Nasal cavities • Teeth • Kidneys • Testes • Ovaries
• Thymus • Sinuses • Tongue • Ureters • Epididymides • Uterine tubes
• Lymphatic • Larynx • Pharynx • Urinary bladder • Ductus deferentia • Uterus
vessels • Trachea • Esophagus • Urethra • Seminal vesicles • Vagina
• Lymph nodes • Bronchi • Stomach • Prostate gland • Labia
• Tonsils • Lungs • Small intestine Functions • Penis • Clitoris
• Alveoli • Large intestine • Excretes waste • Scrotum • Mammary glands
Functions • Liver products from the
• Defends against Functions • Gallbladder blood Functions Functions
infection and • Delivers air to • Pancreas • Controls water • Produces male sex • Produces female
disease alveoli (sites in balance by cells (sperm), sex cells (oocytes)
• Returns tissue lungs where gas Functions regulating volume seminal fluids, and and hormones
fluids to the exchange occurs) • Processes and of urine produced hormones • Supports develop-
bloodstream • Provides oxygen to digests food • Stores urine prior • Sexual intercourse ing embryo from
bloodstream • Absorbs and to voluntary conception to
• Removes carbon conserves water elimination delivery
dioxide from • Absorbs nutrients • Regulates blood • Provides milk to
bloodstream • Stores energy ion concentrations nourish newborn
• Produces sounds reserves and pH infant
for communication • Sexual intercourse
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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Integumentary
– Major organs
• Skin
• Hair
• Sweat glands
• Nails
– Functions
• Protects against environmental hazards
• Helps regulate body temperature
• Provides sensory information

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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Skeletal
– Major organs
• Bones
• Cartilages
• Associated ligaments
• Bone marrow
– Functions
• Provides support and protection for other tissues
• Stores calcium and other minerals
• Forms blood cells

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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Muscular
– Major organs
• Skeletal muscles and associated tendons
– Functions
• Provides movement
• Provides protection and support for other tissues
• Generates heat that maintains body temperature

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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Nervous
– Major organs
• Brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nerves
• Sense organs
– Functions
• Directs immediate responses to stimuli
• Coordinates or moderates other organ systems
• Provides and interprets sensory information

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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Endocrine
– Major organs
• Pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands
• Pancreas and gonads
• Endocrine tissues in other systems
– Functions
• Directs long-term changes in other organ systems
• Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use
• Controls many structural and functional changes
during development

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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Cardiovascular
– Major organs
• Heart
• Blood
• Blood vessels
– Functions
• Distributes blood cells, water, nutrients, waste
products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
• Distributes heat to control body temperature

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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Lymphatic
– Major organs
• Spleen
• Thymus
• Lymphatic vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Tonsils
– Functions
• Defends against infection and disease
• Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream

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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Respiratory
– Major organs
• Nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
lungs, alveoli
– Functions
• Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas
exchange occurs)
• Provides oxygen to bloodstream
• Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream
• Produces sounds for communication

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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Digestive
– Major organs
• Teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
– Functions
• Processes and digests food
• Absorbs and conserves water
• Absorbs nutrients
• Stores energy reserves

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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Urinary
– Major organs
• Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
– Functions
• Excretes waste products from the blood
• Controls water balance by regulating volume of
urine produced
• Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination
• Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH

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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Male reproductive
– Major organs
• Testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal
vesicles, prostate gland, penis, scrotum
– Functions
• Produces male sex cells (sperm), seminal fluids,
and hormones
• Sexual intercourse

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 1-3 Organ Systems
 Female reproductive
– Major organs
• Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris,
mammary glands
– Functions
• Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones
• Supports developing embryo from conception to
delivery
• Provides milk to nourish newborn infant
• Sexual intercourse

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 1-4 Medical Terminology
 Medical terminology
– Terms related to the body in health and disease
– Most commemorative names, or eponyms, have been
replaced by precise terms

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 1-5 Anatomical Terminology
 Surface anatomy
– Locating structures on or near the body surface
 Anatomical landmarks
– Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward
– Supine: lying down, face up
– Prone: lying down, face down

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Figure 1–3a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).

Frontal
(forehead) Nasal (nose)
Ocular, orbital
(eye)

Cranial Otic (ear)

(skull)
Cephalic (head)
Buccal (cheek)
Facial
(face)
Cervical (neck)
Oral (mouth)
Mental (chin) Thoracic
(thorax, chest)
Axillary
(armpit) Mammary
(breast)
Brachial
(arm) Trunk
Abdominal
Antecubital (abdomen)
(front of Umbilical
elbow) (navel)

a Anterior view 31
Figure 1–3a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).

Antebrachial Pelvic
Trunk
(forearm) (pelvis)

Carpal (wrist)

Palmar
(palm) Manual
(hand)

Pollex Digits Inguinal

(thumb) (fingers) (groin)

Pubic
Patellar (pubis)
(kneecap)
Femoral
Crural (thigh)
(leg)
Tarsal
(ankle)

Digits
(toes)
Pedal
(foot)
Hallux
(great toe)
a Anterior view 32
Figure 1–3b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).

Cephalic
(head)

Acromial
(shoulder) Cervical
Dorsal (neck)
(back)

Olecranal
(back Upper
of elbow) limb

b Posterior view

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Figure 1–3b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).

Lumbar
(loin) Upper
limb

Gluteal
(buttock)
Lower
Popliteal
limb
(back of knee)

Sural
(calf)

Calcaneal
(heel of foot)

Plantar
(sole of foot)

b Posterior view 34
 1-5 Anatomical Terminology
 Anatomical regions
– Abdominopelvic quadrants
– Abdominopelvic regions
 Anatomical directions
– Reference terms based on subject

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Figure 1–4a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.

Right Upper Left Upper

Quadrant Quadrant
(RUQ) (LUQ)
Right Lower Left Lower
Quadrant Quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ)

a Abdominopelvic quadrants

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Figure 1–4b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.

Right Left
hypochondriac hypochondriac
region Epigastric region
region

Right lumbar Umbilical Left lumbar

region region region
Hypogastric
Right (pubic) Left inguinal
inguinal region region
region
b Abdominopelvic regions

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Figure 1–4c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.

Liver
Stomach
Gallbladder
Spleen
Large intestine

Small intestine
Appendix
Urinary
bladder
c Anatomical relationships

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Figure 1–5 Directional References.
Superior: Above; at a higher level (in the human body, toward the head) The head is superior to the chest. Superior

Cranial or Cephalic
Right Left
Toward the head
The cranial nerves are in the head.

Proximal
Toward the point
of attachment of a
limb to the trunk
The shoulder is
proximal to the
wrist.
Posterior or Dorsal Anterior or Ventral
Posterior: The back Anterior: The front
surface surface
Dorsal: The back. Ventral: The belly side.
(equivalent to posterior (equivalent to anterior
when referring to the when referring to the
human body) human body)
The scapula (shoulder The umbilicus (navel)
blade) is located posterior is on the
to the rib cage. anterior (or ventral)
Lateral Medial surface of the trunk.
Away Toward the
from the midline
midline

Proximal

Caudal
Distal
Toward the tail;
Away from the (coccyx in
point of humans)
attachment of a
limb to the trunk Fused caudal
vertebrae form the
The fingers are skeleton of the tail
distal to the wrist. (coccyx).

OTHER DIRECTIONAL TERMS

Superficial

Distal At, near, or relatively close

to the body surface
The skin is superficial to
underlying structures.

Deep

Toward the interior of the body;

farther from the surface
The bone of the thigh is deep to
the surrounding skeletal
a Anterior view muscles. b Lateral view

Inferior: Below; at a lower level; toward the feet The knee is inferior to the hip. Inferior 39
 1-5 Anatomical Terminology
 Sectional anatomy
– A section is a slice through a three-dimensional object
• Used to visualize internal organization
• Important in radiological techniques
– MRI
– PET
– CT

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 1-5 Anatomical Terminology
 Sectional plane
– A single view along a two-dimensional flat surface
– Frontal (coronal) plane
• Vertical plane that divides body into anterior and
posterior portions
• A cut in this plane is a frontal section (coronal
section)

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 1-5 Anatomical Terminology
 Sectional plane
– Sagittal plane
• Vertical plane dividing body into left and right
portions
• A cut in this plane is a sagittal section
• Midsagittal plane lies in the middle
• Parasagittal plane is offset from the middle
– Transverse plane divides body into superior and
inferior portions
• A cut in this plane is called a transverse section
(cross section)

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Figure 1–6 Sectional Planes.

Frontal or coronal Sagittal plane

plane
Plane is oriented parallel to
long axis
Plane is oriented
parallel to long axis
A sagittal section separates
right and left portions. You
A frontal, or examine a sagittal section,
coronal, section but you section sagittally.
separates anterior In a midsagittal section, the
and posterior plane passes through the
portions of the midline. It separates the
body. Coronal body into equal right and
usually refers to left sides.
sections passing
through the skull. A parasagittal section
misses the midline. It
separates the body into
Directional term:
unequal right and left sides.
frontally or coronally

Midsagittal plane Directional term: sagittally

Transverse, or
horizontal, plane

Plane is oriented
perpendicular to long axis

Frontal plane A transverse, or cross,

Transverse plane section separates
(inferior view) superior and inferior
portions of the body.

Directional term:
transversely or horizontally

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 1-6 Body Cavities
 Essential functions of body cavities
1. Protect organs from shocks and impacts
2. Permit significant changes in size and shape of
internal organs
 Ventral body cavity (coelom)
– Divided by the diaphragm
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity
 Body cavities contain viscera (internal organs)

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 1-6 Body Cavities
 Serous membrane (serosa)
– Lines body cavities and covers organs
– Consists of parietal and visceral layers
• Parietal serosa lines cavity
• Visceral serosa covers organ

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 1-6 Body Cavities
 Thoracic cavity
– Right and left pleural cavities
• Contain right and left lungs
– Mediastinum
• Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea,
esophagus, and thymus
• Lower portion contains pericardial cavity
– The heart is located within the pericardial cavity

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Figure 1–7a Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.

POSTERIOR ANTERIOR

Thoracic cavity

Pleural cavity
Pericardial cavity

Diaphragm

Abdominopelvic
cavity

Peritoneal cavity

Abdominal cavity

Pelvic cavity

a A lateral view showing the body

cavities of the trunk. The muscular
diaphragm subdivides them into a
superior thoracic cavity and an
inferior abdominopelvic cavity. Three
of the four adult true body cavities
are shown and outlined in red; only
one of the two pleural cavities can
be shown in a sagittal section.
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Figure 1–7b Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.

Visceral layer of
serous pericardium
Heart Air space
Pericardial
cavity
Balloon
Parietal layer of
serous pericardium
b The heart projects into the pericardial cavity like a fist pushed
into a balloon. The attachment site, corresponding to the wrist
of the hand, lies at the connection between the heart and
major blood vessels. The width of the pericardial cavity is
exaggerated here; normally the visceral and parietal layers
are separated only by a thin layer of pericardial fluid.

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Figure 1–7c Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.

ANTERIOR

Pericardial
cavity
Heart
Pleural cavity Right
lung
Parietal pleura Left
lung
Mediastinum

Spinal cord

POSTERIOR
c A transverse section through the thoracic cavity, showing the central
location of the pericardial cavity. The mediastinum and pericardial
cavity lie between the two pleural cavities. Note that this transverse
or cross-sectional view is oriented as though you were standing at
the feet of a supine person and looking toward that person’s head.
This inferior view of a transverse section is the standard presentation
for clinical images. Unless otherwise noted, transverse or cross-
sectional views in this text use this same orientation (see Clinical
Note: Diagnostic Imaging Techniques). 49
 1-6 Body Cavities
 Abdominopelvic cavity
– Peritoneal cavity—chamber within abdominopelvic
cavity
• Parietal peritoneum lines the internal body wall
• Visceral peritoneum covers the organs

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 1-6 Body Cavities
 Abdominopelvic cavity
– Abdominal cavity—superior portion
• Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones
• Contains digestive organs
• Retroperitoneal space
– Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to
muscular body wall
– Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts
of the digestive tract

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 1-6 Body Cavities
 Abdominopelvic cavity
– Pelvic cavity—inferior portion
• Medial to pelvic bones
• Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder

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 1-7 Homeostasis
 Homeostasis
– All body systems work together to maintain a stable
internal environment
• Systems respond to external and internal changes
to keep variables within normal ranges (body
temperature, fluid balance)

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 1-7 Homeostasis
 Homeostatic regulation
– Autoregulation
• Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to an
environmental change
– Extrinsic regulation
• Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine
systems

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 1-7 Homeostasis
 A homeostatic regulatory mechanism consists of
1. ​Receptor
• Receives the stimulus
2. ​Control center
• Processes the signal and sends instructions
3. ​Effector
• Carries out instructions
 Limits fluctuations of internal conditions to keep them close
to a set point, or desired value

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Figure 1–8 The Control of Room Temperature.

b With this regulatory

system, room Air Air

Room temperature (ºC)

temperature conditioner conditioner
fluctuates around turns on turns off
the set point, 22ºC.
Normal
22 Set point
range
Control Center

Time
Information affects Sends commands to
22ºC
Receptor Effector

Thermometer Air conditioner

Homeostasis Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY

INCREASING DECREASING
STIMULUS RESTORED
room room

HOMEOSTASIS
temperature temperature

NORMAL ROOM TEMPERATURE

a In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a control center (a thermostat) triggers an effector response
(either an air conditioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case, when room temperature rises
above the set point, the thermostat turns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal.

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 1-8 Negative and Positive Feedback
 Negative feedback
– The response of the effector negates the stimulus
– Body is brought back into homeostasis
• Normal range is maintained

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Figure 1–9 Negative Feedback: Control of Body Temperature.
b The thermoregulatory
center keeps body Vessels Vessels
dilate, constrict,
temperature fluctuating

Body temperature (ºC)

sweating sweating
within an acceptable increases decreases
range, usually between
37.2
36.7ºC and 37.2ºC. Set point Normal
37
range
36.7

Time
Control Center

Effectors
Information Sends Blood vessels and
affects commands to sweat glands in skin

Respond with
Receptors
Increased blood
Body’s flow to skin
temperature
Homeostasis sensors Thermoregulatory Increased sweating Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY center in brain RESTORED BY
(hypothalamus)
INCREASING DECREASING
STIMULUS RESTORED
body temperature body
above 37.2ºC temperature

HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis NORMAL BODY TEMPERATURE Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY
STIMULUS RESTORED
DECREASING INCREASING
Thermoregulatory
body temperature center in brain body
below 36.7ºC Receptors (hypothalamus) Decreased blood temperature
flow to skin
Body’s
temperature Control Center
Decreased sweating
sensors
Shivering

Respond with
Information Sends Effectors
affects commands to
Blood vessels and
sweat glands in skin

Skeletal muscles

a Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are comparable to those shown in Figure 1–8. A control center
in the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostat with a set point of 37ºC. If body temperature exceeds
37.2ºC, heat loss is increased through increased blood flow to the skin and increased sweating. 58
 1-8 Negative and Positive Feedback
 Positive feedback
– Initial stimulus produces a response that amplifies the
original change in conditions
– Body is moved away from homeostasis
• Normal range is not maintained
– A positive feedback loop completes a dangerous
process quickly to reestablish homeostasis

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Figure 1–10 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting.

Clotting
accelerates

Positive
feedback
loop

Chemicals Blood clot

Chemicals

Damaged cells in the blood The chemicals start chain As clotting continues, each This escalating process
vessel wall release chemicals reactions in which cells, step releases chemicals that is a positive feedback
that begin the clotting cell fragments, and soluble further accelerate the loop that ends with the
process. proteins in the blood begin process. formation of a blood clot,
to form a clot. which patches the vessel
wall and stops the bleeding.

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 Smart Video: Homeostatic Regulation, Negative and
Positive Feedback

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 1-8 Negative and Positive Feedback
 Systems integration
– Systems work together to maintain homeostasis
 Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium
– Opposing forces are in balance
– Dynamic equilibrium—continual adaptation
 Physiological systems work to maintain balance
– Failure results in disease

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