GANESH INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL & SR.

SECONDARY,
Tal. Chikhali, Dist. Pune

11 Class
th

Chapter 10
*Cell Cycle & Cell Division*
L1
MR. PAWAR NAYAN
BIOLOGY EXPERT
Introduction to Cell Division
 Cell Division
• Cell division is a very important process in all living
organisms. During the division of a cell, DNA replication and
cell growth also take place.
 Cell Division
• All these processes, i.e. cell division, DNA replication,
and cell growth, have to take place in a coordinated
way to ensure correct division and formation of
progeny cell containing intact genomes.
 Cell Division
• The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its
genome. Synthesises the other constituents of the cell
and eventually divides into two daughter cells is
termed cell cycle.
 Cell Division
• Rudolf Virchow in 1855 observed that new cells
always developed from pre-existing cells.
• Omnis cellula e cellula
 Phases of Cell Cycle
• A typical eukaryotic cell cycle is illustrated by human
cells in culture. These cells divide once in
approximately every 24 hours.
• Yeast for example, can progress through the cell cycle
in only about 90 minutes.
 Phases of Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases:
INTERPHASE
M Phase (Mitosis Phase)
 Phases of Cell Cycle
• The M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell
division or mitosis occurs and the interphase represents the
phase between two successive M Phases. In the 24 hour
average duration of cell cycle of a human cell, cell division
proper lasts for only about an hour.
• The interphase lasts more than 95% of the duration of cell
cycle.
 M Phase
• The M Phase starts with the nuclear division, leads to
the separation of daughter chromosomes
(karyokinesis) and usually ends with division of
cytoplasm (cytokinesis).
Cell Cycle
 G1 Phase
• G1 Phase corresponds to the interval between mitosis and
initiation of DNA replication.
• During G1 phase the cell is metabolically active and
continuously grows but does not replicate its DNA.
• Intensive cellular synthesis.
• Metabolic rate is high.
• Synthesis of enzyme, amino acids, nucleotides etc. but no
change in DNA amount.
G1 Phase
S - Phase
 S - Phase
• DNA Synthesis phase.
• DNA amount becomes double. If
the initial amount is 2 C then is
becomes 4 C.
• Synthesis of histone proteins
takes place.
• Duplication of centrioles in
cytoplasm.
 G2 Phase
• RNA Synthesis.
• Repair of Damaged DNA occurs.
 Quiescent Stage (G0)
• The cells that do not divide further exist G1 phase to
enter an inactive stage called quiescent stage (G0) of
the cell cycle.
• Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no
longer divide unless called on to do depending on the
requirement of the organism.
 Quiescent Stage (G0)
• Other cells in G0 like hepatocytes, fibroblasts can re-
enter the cell cycle in response to growth factors
following an injury.
• The decision for cell division occurs in G1 phase.
 M Phase - Mitosis
• Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and
progeny cells is the same, it is also called as equational
division.
 Question Time
• You have studied mitosis in onion root tip cells. It has
16 chromosomes in each cell. Can you tell how many
chromosomes will the cell have at G1 phase, after S
phase, and after M phase? Also, what will be the DNA
content of the cells at G1, after S and at G2, if the
content after M phase is 2 C.
 M Phase - Mitosis
• Mitosis has been divided into four stages of nuclear
division.

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
L2
Mitosis
PROPHASE
 PROPHASE
• Prophase which is the first stage of karyokinesis of
mitosis follows the S and G2 phase of interphase.
• Prophase is marked by the initiation of condensation of
chromosomal material.
• The centrosomes, which had undergone duplication
during S phase of interphase, now begins to move
towards opposite poles of the cell.
 End of Prophase
• Chromosomal material condenses to form
compact mitotic chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two
chromatids attached to together at the
centromere.
• Each centrosome radiates out microtubules
called asters.
 End of Prophase
• The two asters together with spindle fibres forms
mitotic apparatus.
• Cells at the end of prophase, do not show Golgi
complex, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus and the
nuclear envelope.
 Metaphase
• 2nd phase of mitosis.
• Chromosomes align at equatorial plate.
 Metaphase
• The complete disintegration of the nuclear
envelope marks the start of the second
phase of mitosis, hence the chromosomes
are spread through the cytoplasm of the
cell.
• By this stage, condensation of
chromosomes is completed and they can
be observed clearly under the microscope.
Metaphase
 Metaphase
• This then, is the stage at which morphology of
chromosomes is most easily studied.
• At this stage, metaphase chromosome is made up of
two sister chromatids, which are held together by the
centromere.
• Small disc-shaped structures at the surface of the
centromeres are called kinetochores.
Metaphase
 Metaphase
• These structures serve as the sites of attachment of spindle fibres
(formed by the spindle fibres_ to the chromosomes that are moved into
position at the centre of the cell.
• Hence, the metaphase is characterised by all the chromosomes coming
to lie at the equator with one chromatid of each chromosomes
connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from one pole and its
sister chromatid connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from
the opposite pole.
• The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is referred
to as the metaphase plate.
 Metaphase
The key features of metaphase are:
 Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.
 Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get aligned
along metaphase plate through spindle fibres to both poles.
Anaphase
 Anaphase
• At the onset of anaphase, each chromosome arranged at the
metaphase plate is split simultaneously and the two daughter
chromatids, now referred to as daughter chromosomes of the
future daughter nuclei, begin their migration towards the two
opposite poles.
 Anaphase
• As each chromosomes moves away from
the equatorial plate, the centromere of each
chromosomes remains directed towards the
pole and hence at the leading edge, with the
arms of the chromosomes trailing behind.
• Centromeres split and sister chromatids
separate.
• Chromatids move to opposite poles.
 Telophase
• Nuclear membrane will regenerate, Nucleolus, Golgi,
ER.
• Chromatids  Chromatin
 Telophase
• At the beginning of the final stage of karyokinesis, i.e.,
Telophase, the chromosomes that have reached their
respective poles decondense and lose their
individuality.
• The individual chromosomes can no longer be seen
and each set of chromatin material tends to collect at
each of the two poles.
 Telophase
This is the stage which shows the following key events:
 Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles and their
identify is lost as discrete elements.
 Nuclear envelope develops around the chromosome clusters
at each pole forming two daughter nuclei.
 Nucleolus, golgi complex & ER reform.
Telophase
 Cytokinesis
• Mitosis accomplishes not only the segregation of duplicated
chromosomes into daughter nuclei (karyokinesis), but the cell
itself is divided into two daughter cells by the separation of
cytoplasm called cytokinesis at the end of which cell division
gets completed.
• In an animal cell, this is achieved by the appearance of a
furrow in the plasma membrane.
• The furrow gradually deepens and ultimately joins in the
centre dividing the cell cytoplasm into two.
Cytokinesis
 Plant Cell Cytokinesis
• Plant cells have inextensible
cell wall, therefore they
undergo cytokinesis by a
different mechanism.
• In plant cells, wall formation
starts in the centre of the cell
and grows outward to meet
the existing lateral walls.
 Plant Cell Cytokinesis
• The formation of the new cell wall begins with the
formation of the cell-plate that represents the middle
lamella between the walls of two adjacent cells.
• At the time of cytoplasmic division, organelles like
mitochondria and plastids distributed between the two
daughter cells.
 Plant Cell Cytokinesis
• In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by
cytokinesis as a result of which multinucleate
condition arises leading to the formation of syncytium
(e.g. liquid endosperm is coconut).
 Significance of Mitosis
• Mitosis or the equational
division is usually restricted to
the diploid cells only.
• However, in some lower plants
and in some social insects
haploid cells also divide by
mitosis.
• It is very essential to understand
the significance of this division
in the life of an organism.
 Significance of Mitosis
• Mitosis usually results in the
production of diploid daughter
cells with identical genetic
complement.
• The growth of multicellular
organisms is due to mitosis.
• Cell growth results in
disturbing the ration between
the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Significance of Mitosis
• It therefore becomes essential for the cell to divide to
restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio.
• A very significant contribution of mitosis is cell repair.
• The cells of the upper layer of the epidermis, cells of
the lining of the gut, and blood cells are being
constantly replaced.
 Significance of Mitosis
• Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues- the apical and the lateral
cambium, result in continuous growth of plants throughput their life.
 Question
Chromosome Chromatid
G1 46 46
S 46 92
G2 46 92
P 46 92
M 46 92
A 92 92
T 92 92
L3
Meiosis
 Meiosis
• Meiosis is a specialized kind of cell division that reduces the
chromosomes number by half and results in the production of
haploid daughter cells.
• The production of offspring by sexual reproduction includes
the fusion of two gametes (sperm and ovum). Each with a
complete haploid set of chromosomes.
Meiosis
Meiosis I
 Prophase I
• Prophase of the first meiotic division is long and more
complex when compared to prophase of mitosis.
Leptotene
Zygotene
Pachytene
Diplotene
Diakinesis
 Leptotene
• During leptotene stage the chromosomes become gradually
visible under the light microscope.
• The compaction of chromosomes continues throughout
leptotene.
 Zygotene
• During this stage chromosomes start
pairing together and this process of
association is called synapsis.
• Such paired chromosomes are called
homologous chromosomes.
• Chromosomes synapsis is accompanied
by the formation of complex structure
called synaptonemal complex.
 Zygotene
• The complex formed by a pair of
synapsed homologous
chromosomes is called a bivalent
or a tetrad. However, these are
more clearly visible at the next
stage.
• The first two stages of prophase I
are relatively short-lived compared
to the next stage, that is pachytene.
 Pachytene
• During this stage bivalent chromosomes now clearly appears as
tetrads.
• This stage is characterized by the appearance of recombination
nodules, the sites at which crossing over occurs between non-sister
chromatids of the homologous chromosomes.
Pachytene
 Pachytene
• Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material
between two homologous chromosomes.
• Crossing over is an enzyme-mediated process and the
enzyme involved is called recombinase.
 Pachytene
• Crossing over leads to recombination (exchange) of
genetic material on the two chromosomes.
• Recombination between homologous chromosomes is
completed by the end of pachytene, leaving the
chromosomes linked at the sites crossing over.
Pachytene
 Diplotene
• The beginning of Diplotene is recognized by the
dissolution of the synaptonemal complex and the
tendency of the recombined homologous
chromosomes of the bivalents to separate from each
other except at the sites of crossovers.
• These X-shaped structures, are called chiasmata.
 Diakinesis
• This is marked by terminalisation of chiasmata.
• During this phase the chromosomes are fully condensed and
the meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the homologous
chromosomes for separation.
• By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus disappears and the
nuclear envelope also breaks down.
• Diakinesis represents transition to metaphase.
Diakinesis
 Metaphase - I
• The bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.
• The microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle
attach to the pair of homologous chromosomes.
 Anaphase I
• The homologous chromosomes separate, while sister
chromatids remain associated at their centromeres.
Anaphase - I
 Telophase - I
• The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear,
cytokinesis follows and this is called as diad of cells.
 Interkinesis
• The stage between the two meiotic divisions is called
Interkinesis and is generally short lived.
• Interkinesis is followed by prophase II, a much simpler
prophase than prophase I.
Meiosis II
 Prophase II
• Meiosis II is initiated immediately after cytokinesis,
usually before the chromosomes have fully elongated.
• In contrast to meiosis I, meiosis II resembles a normal
mitosis.
• The nuclear membrane disappears by the end of
prophase II. The chromosomes again become compact.
 Metaphase II
• At this stage the chromosomes align at the equator and
the microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle get
attached to the kinetochores of sister chromatids.
 Anaphase - II
• It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the
centromere of each chromosomes (which was holding
the sister chromatids together). Allowing them to move
toward opposite poles of the cell.
 Telophase - II
• Meiosis ends with Telophase II, in which the two
groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a
nuclear envelope: cytokinesis follows resulting in the
formation of tetrad of cells, four haploid daughter
cells.
 Significance of Meiosis
• Meiosis is the mechanism of which conservation of
specific chromosomes number of each species is
achieved across generation in sexually reproducing
organisms.
 Significance of Meiosis
• It also increases the genetic variability in the
population of organisms from one generation to the
next. Variations are very important for the process of
evolution.
Meiosis
 MCQs Quiz
1. When synapsis is complete all along the chromosomes, the cell is said to have entered a stage
called.
a. Zygotene b. Pachytene c. Diplotene d. Diakinesis
2. Which of the following is not a characteristics of meiosis?
a. It involves two stages of DNA replication one before meiosis-I and another before meiosis – II
b. It involves recombination and crossing over
c. Sister chromatids separate during anaphase – II
d. Nuclear membrane disappears during prophase
3. In a diploid cell, at which stage of cell cycle, the amount of DNA is doubled?
a. G1 & G2 phase b. G0 phase c. S, G2 phase d. S phase
4. Which is the longest phase of the cell cycle?
a. M-Phase b. Interphase c. Leptotene d. S-phase
5. Anaphase promoting complex (APC) is a protein degradation machinery necessary for proper mitosis of
animal cells. If APC is defective in a human cell, which of the following is expected to occur?
a. Chromosomes will not condense b. Chromosomes will be fragmented
c. Chromosomes will not segregate d. Recombination of chromosome arms will occur
6. DNA replication in bacteria occurs
a. During S-Phase b. Within nucleolus c. Prior to fission d. Just before transcription
7. Which of the following options gives the correct sequences of events during mitosis?
a. Condensation  Nuclear membrane disassembly  crossing over  segregation  Telophase
b. Condensation  Nuclear membrane disassembly  arrangement at equator  centromere division 
segregation  Telophase
c. Condensation  Crossing over  nuclear membrane disassembly  segregation  Telophase
d. Condensation  arrangement at equator  centromere division  segregation  Telophase
8. Spindle fibres attach on to
a. Kinetochore of the chromosomes b. Centromere of the chromosome
c. Kinetosome of the chromosome d. Telomere of the chromosome
9. In meiosis crossing over is initiated at
a. Leptotene b. Zygotene c. Diplotene d. Pachytene
10. Arrange the following events of meiosis is correct sequences
I. Crossing II. Synapsis III. Terminalisation of chiasmata IV. Disappearance of nucleolus
a. II, I, IV, III b. II, I, III, IV c. I, II, III, IV d. II, III, IV, I
11. The chromosomes in which centromere is situated close to one end are
a. Metacentric b. Acrocentric c. Telocentric d. Sub-metacentric
12. A somatic cell that has just completed the S-phase of its cell cycle, as compared to gamete of the same species has
a. Twice the number of chromosomes and twice the amount of DNA
b. Same number of chromosomes but twice the amount of DNA
c. Twice the number of chromosomes and four times the amount of DNA
d. Four times the number of chromosomes and twice the amount of DNA
13. During which phase(s) of cell cycle, amount of DNA in a cell remains at 4C level if the initial amount is denoted
as 2C?
a. G0 & G1 b. G1 & S c. Only G2 d. G2 & M
14. The enzymes recombinase is required at which stage of meiosis?
a. Pachytene b. Zygotene c. Diplotene d. Diakinesis
15. The complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is called
a. Equatorial plate b. Kinetochore c. Bivalent d. Axoneme
 Meiosis
Phase Chromosome Chromatid
1. Prophase II 23
2. Metaphase II 23
3. Anaphase II 46
4. Telophase II 46
5. Cytokinesis 23
GUESS THE STAGE
GUESS THE STAGE
GUESS THE STAGE
GUESS THE STAGE
L5

Exercise
1. What is the average cell cycle span for a mammalian
cell?
2. Distinguish cytokinesis from karyokinesis.
3. Describe the events taking place during interphase
4. What is G0 (quiescent phase) of cell cycle?
The cells that do not divide further exit G1 phase to enter an inactive
stage called quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle.
Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer divide unless
called on to do so depending on the requirement of the organism.
Other cells in G0 like hepatocytes, fibroblasts can re-enter the cell cycle
in response to growth factors following an injury.

o The decision for cell division occurs in G1 phase.

5. Why is mitosis called equational division?
6. Name the stage of cell cycle at which one of the following events
occur.
I. Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator.
II. Centromere splits and chromatids separate.
III. Pairing between homologous chromosomes takes place.
IV. Crossing over between homologous chromosomes takes place.
7. Describe the following.
I. Synapsis
II. Bivalent
III. Chiasmata
Draw a diagram to illustrate your answer.
8. How does cytokinesis in plant cells differ from that in
animal cells?
9. Find examples where the four daughter cells from
meiosis are equal in size and where they are found
unequal in size.
10. Distinguish anaphase of mitosis from anaphase I of
meiosis.
11. List the main differences between mitosis and
meiosis.
12. What is the significance of meiosis.
13. Discuss with your teacher about
I. Haploid insects and lower plants where cell-division occurs, and
II. Some haploid cells in higher plants where cell-division does not occur.
14. Can there be mitosis without DNA replication in ‘S’
phase?
15. Can there the DNA replication without cell division?
There can be DNA replication without division.
o If there is a repeated replication of DNA without any cell division, then this DNA will
keep accumulating inside the cell. This would increase the volume of the cell nucleus,
thereby causing cell expansion.
o An example of DNA duplication without cell division is commonly observed in the
salivary glands of Drosophila.
16.Analyse the events during every stage of cell cycle and
notice how the following two parameters change.
I. Number of chromosomes (N) per cell.
II. Amount of DNA content (C) per cell.
L6
Past Year CBSE Questions
1. No. of mitotic divisions required to form 64 cells?
2. If a bacterial cell divides once every minute and takes 60
minutes to fill a cup, how much time it will take to fill half
the cup?
3. If there are 8 chromosomes in G1 phase how many
chromosomes will be there in Anaphase of mitosis?
4. Oogenesis, the process that creates female gametes,
is STOPPED at prophase I until puberty. What will be
the number of chromosomes and chromatid content of a
female’s gametes before puberty?
5. If bacterial cell divides after every 10 minutes. How
many bacteria will be there after 1 hour?
6. An anther has 1200 pollen grains. How many pollen
mother cells must have been there to produce them?
7. The minimum number of meiotic divisions required
to produce 200 eggs of wheat?
8. Identify the wrong statement about meiosis.
(a) Pairing of homologous chromosomes
(b) Four haploid cells are formed
(C) At the end of meiosis number of chromosomes are reduced to
half
(d) Two cycles of DNA replication occur
9. Select the correct statement about G1 phase.
(a) Cell is metabolically inactive
(b) DNA in the cell does not replicate
(C) It is not a phase of synthesis of macromolecules
(d) Cell stops growing
10.Which of the events listed below is not observed during mitosis?
a. Chromatin condensation
b. Movement of centrioles to opposite poles
c. Appearance of chromosomes with two chromatids joined together
at the centromere.
d. Crossing over
11.A bivalent of meiosis-I consist of
a. Two chromatids and one centromere
b. Two chromatids and two centromeres
c. Four chromatids and two centromeres
d. Four chromatids and four centromeres
12.During anaphase-I of meiosis
a. Homologous chromosomes separate
b. Non-homologous chromosomes separate
c. Sister chromatids chromosomes separate
d. Non Sister chromatids chromosomes separate
13.Meiosis in diploid organisms results in
a. Production of gametes
b. Reduction in the number of chromosomes
c. Introduction of variation
d. All of the above
14. At which stage of meiosis does the genetic constitution of gametes is
finally decided?-
a. Metaphase-I
b. Anaphase-I
c. Metaphase-II
d. Anaphase-II
15.Given that the average duplication time of E. Coli is 20
minutes, how much time will two E. Coli cells take to
become 32 cells?
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