Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Yunus A. Çengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
 THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
 Thermodynamics: The science of
energy.
 Energy: The ability to cause changes.
 The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).
 Conservation of energy principle:
During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
 The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
 The first law asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.
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 The second law of thermodynamics:
It asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
 Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require
a knowledge of the behavior of
individual particles.
 It provides a direct and easy way to the
solution of engineering problems and it
is used in this text.
 Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.
 It is used in this text only in the
supporting role.
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 Application Areas of Thermodynamics

All activities in nature involve some interaction between

energy and matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an area
that does not relate to thermodynamics in some manner. 4
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 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
 Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.
 The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called
units.
 Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t,
and temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and
volume V are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions
and are called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
 Metric SI system: A simple and logical system based on a
decimal relationship between the various units.
 English system: It has no apparent systematic numerical
base, and various units in this system are related to each
other rather arbitrarily.

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 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
 System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
 Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system
 Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system
from its surroundings.
 The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
 Systems may be considered to be closed or open.
 Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass, and no
mass can cross its boundary

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 Open system (control volume): A properly selected
region in space.
 It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow
such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
 Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume.
 Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.

A control volume can involve

fixed, moving, real, and imaginary
boundaries.

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 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

 Property: Any characteristic of a

system.
 Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
 Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
 Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
 Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
 Specific properties: Extensive
properties per unit mass.
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 Continuum
 Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is
very convenient to disregard the atomic
nature of a substance and view it as a
continuous, homogeneous matter with
no holes, that is, a continuum.
 The continuum idealization allows us to
treat properties as point functions and
to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
 This idealization is valid as long as the
size of the system we deal with is large
relative to the space between the
molecules.
 This is the case in practically all
problems.
 In this text we will limit our
consideration to substances that can be
modeled as a continuum. 12
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance at
a specified temperature
Specific volume
(usually water at 4°C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
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 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
 Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium
states.
 Equilibrium: A state of balance.
 In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system.
 Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature
is the same throughout the entire system.
 Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no
change in pressure at any point of the
system with time.
 Phase equilibrium: If a system involves
two phases and when the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level and
stays there.
 Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical
composition of a system does not change
with time, that is, no chemical reactions
occur. 14
 The State Postulate
 The number of properties
required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state
postulate:
 The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by
two independent,
intensive properties.
 Simple compressible
system: If a system involves
no electrical, magnetic,
gravitational, motion, and
surface tension effects.
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PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as
well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a
manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at
all times.

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 Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
 Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
 The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particularproperty remains constant.
 Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
 Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
 Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.
 Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
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 The Steady-Flow Process
 The term steady implies no change
with time. The opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
 A large number of engineering
devices operate for long periods of
time under the same conditions, and
they are classified as steady-flow
devices.
 Steady-flow process: A process
during which a fluid flows through a
control volume steadily.
 Steady-flow conditions can be
closely approximated by devices that
are intended for continuous
operation such as turbines, pumps,
boilers, condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants or
refrigeration systems.
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 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 The zeroth law of
thermodynamics: If two
bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with
each other.
 By replacing the third body
with a thermometer, the
zeroth law can be restated
as two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium if both
have the same temperature
reading even if they are not
in contact.
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 Temperature Scales
 All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible
states such as the freezing and boiling points of water: the ice
point and the steam point.
 Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air
saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or 32°F).
 Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no
air) in equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or 212°F).
 Celsius scale: in SI unit system
 Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
 Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is
independent of the properties of any substance.
 Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
 A temperature scale nearly identical to the Kelvin scale is the
ideal-gas temperature scale.
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 Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.

 The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
 The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
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coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
PRESSURE 68 kg 136 kg

Pressure: A normal force exerted by a

fluid per unit area

Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2

Some
basic
pressure
gages. 22
 Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
 Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
 Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout this
text, the pressure
P will denote
absolute
pressure unless
specified
otherwise.

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Variation of Pressure with Depth

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Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to
a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is

called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.

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PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
The Barometer
 Atmospheric pressure is measured
by a device called a barometer;
thus, the atmospheric pressure is
often referred to as the barometric
pressure.
 A frequently used pressure unit is
the standard atmosphere, which is
defined as the pressure produced
by a column of mercury 760 mm in
height at 0°C (Hg = 13,595 kg/m3)
under standard gravitational
acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

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The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small
and moderate pressure differences. A
manometer contains one or more fluids
such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

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Solved Example - Manometer
The water in a tank is pressurized
by air, and the pressure is
measured by a multifluid
manometer as shown in the figure
below. The tank is located on a
mountain at an altitude of 1400 m
where the atmospheric pressure is
85.6 kPa. Determine the air
pressure in the tank if h1 = 0.1 m,
h2 = 0.2 m, and h3 = 0.35 m.
Take the densities of water, oil,
and mercury to be 1000 kg/m3,
850 kg/m3, and 13,600 kg/m3,
respectively. The densities of
water, oil, and mercury are given
to be 1000 kg/m3, 850 kg/m3, Figure Ex1 31
and 13,600 kg/m3, respectively
Example Solution

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 Other Pressure
Measurement Devices
 Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal
tube bent like a hook whose end is closed
and connected to a dial indicator needle.
 Pressure transducers: Use various
techniques to convert the pressure effect to
an electrical effect such as a change in
voltage, resistance, or capacitance.
 Pressure transducers are smaller and faster,
and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and
precise than their mechanical counterparts.
 Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by
having a diaphragm deflect between two
chambers open to the pressure inputs.
 Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-
state pressure transducers, work on the
principle that an electric potential is generated
in a crystalline substance when it is subjected
to mechanical pressure.
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70 MPa

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 Thermodynamics and energy


 Application areas of thermodynamics
Importance of dimensions and units
Summary
 Some SI and English units, Dimensional
homogeneity, Unity conversion ratios
 Systems and control volumes
 Properties of a system
 Continuum
 Density and specific gravity
 State and equilibrium
 The state postulate
 Processes and cycles
 The steady-flow process
 Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics
 Temperature scales
 Pressure
 Variation of pressure with depth
 The manometer
 Other pressure measurement devices
 The barometer and atmospheric pressure

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