Research Design: Definition

• A research design is a framework or blueprint for

conducting the marketing research project. It details
the procedures necessary for obtaining the
information needed to structure or solve marketing
research problems.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 1

 Components of a Research Design
• Define the information needed .
• Design the exploratory, descriptive, and/or causal phases
of the research.
• Specify the measurement and scaling procedures.
• Construct and pretest a questionnaire (interviewing form)
or an appropriate form for data collection.
• Specify the sampling process and sample size.
• Develop a plan of data analysis .

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 2

A Classification of Marketing Research Designs

Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive Research

Research Design Design

Descriptive Research Causal Research

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal Design

Design

Single Cross- Multiple Cross-

Sectional Design Sectional Design
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 3
 Exploratory & Conclusive Research
Differences

Exploratory Conclusive
Objective: To provide insights and To test specific hypotheses and
understanding. examine relationships.

Character- Information needed is defined only Information needed is clearly defined.

istics: loosely. Research process is flexible Research process is formal and
and unstructured. Sample is small structured. Sample is large and
and non-representative. Analysis of representative. Data analysis is
primary data is qualitative. quantitative.

Tentative.
Findings/ Conclusive.
Results:
Generally followed by further
Outcome: exploratory or conclusive research. Findings used as input into decision
making.
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 4
 A Comparison of Basic Research
Designs

Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Objective: Discovery of ideas Describe market Determine cause
and insights characteristics or and effect
functions relationships

Characteristics: Flexible, versatile Marked by the prior Manipulation of

formulation of specific one or more
hypotheses independent
variables
Often the front end Preplanned and
of total research structured design Control of other
design mediating
variables
Expert surveys Secondary data:
Methods: Pilot surveys quantitative analysis Experiments
Secondary data: Surveys
qualitative analysis Panels
Qualitative research
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi,Observation
IIFT, New Delhi and other 5
data
 Uses of Exploratory Research
• Formulate a problem or define a problem more
precisely
• Identify alternative courses of action
• Develop hypotheses
• Isolate key variables and relationships for further
examination
• Gain insights for developing an approach to the
problem
• Establish priorities for further research

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 6

 Methods of Exploratory Research

• Survey of experts.
• Pilot surveys .
• Secondary data analyzed in a qualitative way .
• Qualitative research .

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 7

 A Classification of Qualitative
Research Procedures
Qualitative Research Procedures

Direct (Non- Indirect

disguised) (Disguised)

Projective
Techniques
Focus Groups Depth Interviews

Association Completion Construction Expressive

Techniques Techniques Techniques Techniques
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 8
 Characteristics of Focus Groups
Group Size 8-12

Group Composition Homogeneous, respondents,

prescreened

Physical Setting Relaxed, informal atmosphere

Time Duration 1-3 hours

Recording Use of audiocassettes and videotapes

Moderator Observational, interpersonal, and

communication skills of the
moderator

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 9

 Key Qualifications of Focus Group
Moderators
1. Kindness with firmness: The moderator must combine a
disciplined detachment with understanding empathy so as to
generate the necessary interaction.
2. Permissiveness: The moderator must be permissive yet alert to
signs that the group’s cordiality or purpose is disintegrating.
3. Involvement: The moderator must encourage and stimulate
intense personal involvement.
4. Incomplete understanding: The moderator must encourage
respondents to be more specific about generalized comments by
exhibiting incomplete understanding.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 10

 Key Qualifications of Focus
Group Moderators, cont.
5. Encouragement: The moderator must encourage
unresponsive members to participate.

6. Flexibility: The moderator must be able to improvise and

alter the planned outline amid the distractions of the
group process.

7. Sensitivity: The moderator must be sensitive enough to

guide the group discussion at an intellectual as well as
emotional level.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 11

Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus
Groups

Determine the Objectives and Define the Problem

Specify the Objectives of Qualitative Research

State the Objectives/Questions to be Answered by Focus Groups

Write a Screening Questionnaire

Develop a Moderator’s Outline

Conduct the Focus Group Interviews

Review Tapes and Analyze the Data

Summarize the Findings and Plan Follow-Up Research or Action

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 12
 Variations in Focus Groups
• Two-way focus group. This allows one target group to
listen to and learn from a related group. For example, a
focus group of physicians viewed a focus group of
arthritis patients discussing the treatment they desired.

• Dual-moderator group. A focus group conducted by

two moderators: One moderator is responsible for the
smooth flow of the session, and the other ensures that
specific issues are discussed.

• Dueling-moderator group. There are two moderators,

but they deliberately take opposite positions on the
issues to be discussed.
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 13
 Variations in Focus Groups
• Respondent-moderator group. The moderator asks
selected participants to play the role of moderator
temporarily to improve group dynamics.
• Client-participant groups. Client personnel are
identified and made part of the discussion group.
• Mini groups. These groups consist of a moderator
and only 4 or 5 respondents.
• Tele-session groups. Focus group sessions by phone
using the conference call technique.
• Online Focus groups. Focus groups conducted online
over the Internet.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 14

Advantages of Focus Groups
1. Synergism
2. Snowballing
3. Stimulation
4. Security
5. Spontaneity
6. Serendipity
7. Specialization
8. Scientific scrutiny
9. Structure
10. Speed

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 15

 Disadvantages of
Focus Groups
1. Misuse
2. Misjudge
3. Moderation
4. Messy
5. Misrepresentation

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 16

 Online Versus Traditional Focus Groups

Characteristic Online Focus Groups Traditional Focus Groups

Group size 4-6 8-12

Group composition Anywhere in the world Drawn from the local area

Time duration 1-1.5 hours 1-3 hours

Physical setting Researcher has little control Under the control of the researcher

Respondent identity Difficult to verify Can be easily verified

Respondent attentiveness Respondents can engage in other tasks Attentiveness can be monitored

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 17

 Online Versus Traditional Focus Groups

Respondent recruiting Easier. Can be recruited online, e-mail, Recruited by traditional means
panel, or by traditional means (telephone, mail, mail panel)

Group dynamics Limited Synergistic, snowballing

(bandwagon) effect

Openness of respondents Respondents are more candid Respondents are candid, except for
due to lack of face-to-face contact sensitive topics

Nonverbal communication Body language cannot be observed Body language and emotions
Emotions expressed by using symbols observed

Use of physical stimuli Limited to those that can be displayed A variety of stimuli (products,
on the Internet advertising demonstrations, etc.)
can be used

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 18

 Online Versus Traditional Focus Groups

Transcripts Available immediately Time consuming and expensive to

obtain

Observers’ communication Observers can communicate with the Observers can manually send notes
with moderator the moderator on a split-screen to the focus group room

Unique moderator skills Typing, computer usage, familiarity Observational

with chat room slang

Turnaround time Can be set up and completed Takes many days for setup and
in a few days completion

Client travel costs None Can be expensive

Basic focus group costs Much less expensive More expensive: facility rental,
food, taping, transcript preparation
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 19
 Advantages of Online Focus Groups

• Geographical constraints are removed and time

constraints are lessened.
• Unique opportunity to re-contact group
participants at a later date.
• Can recruit people not interested in traditional
focus groups: doctors, lawyers, etc.
• Moderators can carry on side conversations with
individual respondents.
• There is no travel, videotaping, or facilities to
arrange so the cost is much lower.
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 20
 Disadvantages of Online Focus Groups

• Only people that have access to the Internet can

participate.
• Verifying that a respondent is a member of a target
group is difficult.
• There is lack of general control over the respondent's
environment.
• Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested. Products
can not be touched (e.g., clothing) or smelled (e.g.,
perfumes).

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 21

 Depth Interview Techniques: Laddering

In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from product

characteristics to user characteristics. This technique allows the
researcher to tap into the consumer's network of meanings.

Wide body aircrafts (product characteristic)

 
I can get more work done
 
I accomplish more
 
I feel good about myself (user characteristic)
 
Advertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flying
our airline. “You're The Boss.”
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 22
 Depth Interview Techniques:
Hidden Issue Questioning
In hidden issue questioning, the focus is not on socially
shared values but rather on personal “sore spots;” not on
general lifestyles but on deeply felt personal concerns.

fantasies, work lives, and social lives

 
historic, elite, “masculine-camaraderie,” competitive
activities

Advertising theme: communicate aggressiveness, high

status, and competitive heritage of the airline.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 23

 Depth Interview Techniques:
Symbolic Analysis
Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning of objects by
comparing them with their opposites. The logical opposites of a product that
are investigated are: non-usage of the product, attributes of an imaginary
“non-product,” and opposite types of products.

“What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?”

 
“Without planes, I would have to rely on letters and long- distance calls.”

Airlines sell to the managers face-to-face communication.

Advertising theme: The airline will do the same thing for a manager as Federal
Express does for a package.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 24

 Focus Groups Versus Depth
Interviews
Characteristic Focus Depth
Groups Interviews
Group synergy and dynamics + -
Peer pressure/group influence - +
Client involvement + -
Generation of innovative ideas + -
In-depth probing of individuals - +
Uncovering hidden motives - +
Discussion of sensitive topics - +
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 25
Focus Groups Versus Depth Interviews

Characteristic Focus Depth

Groups Interviews
Interviewing competitors - +
Interviewing professional respondents - +
Scheduling of respondents - +
Amount of information + -
Bias in moderation and interpretation + -
Cost per respondent + -
Note: A + indicates a relative advantage over the other procedure, a - indicates a
relative disadvantage.
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 26
Definition of Projective Techniques
• An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that
encourages respondents to project their
underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or
feelings regarding the issues of concern.
• In projective techniques, respondents are asked
to interpret the behavior of others.
• In interpreting the behavior of others,
respondents indirectly project their own
motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into the
situation.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 27

 Word Association
In word association, respondents are presented with a list of
words, one at a time, and asked to respond to each with the
first word that comes to mind. The words of interest, called
test words, are interspersed throughout the list which also
contains some neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose
of the study. Responses are analyzed by calculating:
(1)  the frequency with which any word is given as a
response;
(2)  the amount of time that elapses before a response is
given; and
(3) the number of respondents who do not respond at all
to a test word within a reasonable period of time.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 28

 Word Association
EXAMPLE
STIMULUS MRS. M MRS. C
washday everyday ironing
fresh and sweet clean
pure air soiled
scrub don't; husband does clean
filth this neighborhood dirt
bubbles bath soap and water

family squabbles children

towels dirty wash

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 29

 Completion Techniques
In sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete sentences
and asked to complete them. Generally, they are asked to use the first
word or phrase that comes to mind.

A person who shops at Sears is ______________________

 
A person who receives a gift certificate good for Sak's Fifth Avenue
would be __________________________________
 
J. C. Penney is most liked by _________________________
 
When I think of shopping in a department store, I ________

A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in which

the respondent completes a paragraph beginning with the stimulus
phrase. Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 30
 Completion Techniques
In story completion, respondents are given
part of a story – enough to direct attention
to a particular topic but not to hint at the
ending. They are required to give the
conclusion in their own words.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 31

 Construction Techniques
With a picture response, the respondents are asked
to describe a series of pictures of ordinary as well as
unusual events. The respondent's interpretation of
the pictures gives indications of that individual's
personality.
 
In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a
specific situation related to the problem. The
respondents are asked to indicate what one cartoon
character might say in response to the comments of
another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to
administer and analyze than picture response
techniques.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 32

A Cartoon Test
Sears

Let’s see if we can

pick up some
house wares at
Sears.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 33

 Expressive Techniques
In expressive techniques, respondents are presented
with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the
feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.
Role playing Respondents are asked to play the role or
assume the behavior of someone else.
Third-person technique The respondent is presented
with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is
asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third
person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs
and attitudes. This third person may be a friend,
neighbor, colleague, or a “typical” person.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 34

 Advantages of Projective
Techniques
• They may elicit responses that subjects would be
unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose
of the study.

• Helpful when the issues to be addressed are

personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social norms.

• Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and

attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 35

 Disadvantages of Projective Techniques

• Suffer from many of the disadvantages of

unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater
extent.
• Require highly-trained interviewers.
• Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the
responses.
• There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.
• They tend to be expensive.
• May require respondents to engage in unusual
behavior.
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 36
 Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques

• Projective techniques should be used because

the required information cannot be accurately
obtained by direct methods.
• Projective techniques should be used for
exploratory research to gain initial insights and
understanding.
• Given their complexity, projective techniques
should not be used naively.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 37

 Comparison of Focus Groups, Depth Interviews, and
Projective Techniques

Criteria Focus Groups Depth Interviews Projective

Techniques

1. Degree of Structure Relatively high Relatively medium Relatively low

2. Probing of individual Low High Medium
respondents
3. Moderator bias Relatively medium Relatively high Low to high
4. Interpretation bias Relatively low Relatively Relatively high
5. Uncovering subconscious Low medium Medium to High
information high
6. Discovering innovative
information High Low
Medium
7. Obtaining sensitive
Low High
information
Medium
8. Involve unusual behavior or No Yes
questioning
To a limited extent
9. Overall usefulness Highly useful Useful Somewhat useful

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 38

 Analysis of Qualitative Data
1) Data reduction – Select which aspects of the data
are to be emphasized, minimized, or set aside for
the project at hand.
2) Data display – Develop a visual interpretation of
the data with the use of such tools as a diagram,
chart, or matrix. The display helps to illuminate
patterns and interrelationships in the data.
3) Conclusion drawing and verification – Considers
the meaning of analyzed data and assess its
implications for the research question at hand.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 39

 Use of Descriptive Research
• To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as
consumers, salespeople, organizations, or market areas.
• To estimate the percentage of units in a specified
population exhibiting a certain behavior.
• To determine the perceptions of product characteristics.
• To determine the degree to which marketing variables
are associated.
• To make specific predictions.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 40

Methods of Descriptive Research
• Secondary data analyzed in a quantitative as
opposed to a qualitative manner .
• Surveys .
• Observational and other data.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 41

 Cross-sectional Designs
• Involve the collection of information from any given sample of
population elements only once.
• In single cross-sectional designs, there is only one sample of
respondents and information is obtained from this sample
only once.
• In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more
samples of respondents, and information from each sample is
obtained only once. Often, information from different
samples is obtained at different times.
• Cohort analysis consists of a series of surveys conducted at
appropriate time intervals, where the cohort serves as the
basic unit of analysis. A cohort is a group of respondents who
experience the same event within the same time interval.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 42

 Consumption of Various Soft Drinks by Various
Age Cohorts

Percentage consuming on a typical day

Age 1950 1960 1969 1979
8-19 52.9 62.6 73.2 81.0
20-29 45.2 60.7 76.0 75.8 C8
30-39 33.9 46.6 67.7 71.4 C7
40-49 23.2 40.8 58.6 67.8 C6
50+ 18.1 28.8 50.0 51.9 C5
C1 C2 C3 C4
C1: cohort born prior to 1900 C5: cohort born 1931-40
C2: cohort born 1901-10 C6: cohort born 1940-49
C3: cohort born 1911-20 C7: cohort born 1950-59
C4: cohort born 1921-30Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi
C8: cohort born 1960-69
43
Longitudinal Designs
• A fixed sample (or samples) of population
elements is measured repeatedly on the same
variables
• A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional
design in that the sample or samples remain the
same over time

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 44

 Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal
Cross- Sample
Sectional Surveyed
Design at T1

Same
Sample Sample also
Longitudinal Surveyed at
Design Surveyed at
T1 T2

Time T1 T2
Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 45
 Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of
Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Designs

Evaluation Cross-Sectional Longitudinal

Criteria Design Design

Detecting Change - +
Large amount of data collection - +
Accuracy - +
Representative Sampling + -
Response bias + -

Note: A “+” indicates a relative advantage over the other design,

whereas a “-” indicates a relative disadvantage.

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 46

 Cross-Sectional Data May Not
Show Change

Brand Purchased Time Period

Period 1 Period 2
Survey Survey

Brand A 200 200

Brand B 300 300
Brand C 500 500
Total 1000 1000

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 47

 Longitudinal Data May Show
Substantial Change

Brand Brand Purchased in Period 2

Purchased in
Period 1 Brand A Brand B Brand C Total
Brand A 100 50 50 200
Brand B 25 100 175 300
Brand C 75 150 275 500
Total 200 300 500 1000

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 48

Uses of Causal Research
• To understand which variables are the cause
(independent variables) and which variables are the
effect (dependent variables) of a phenomenon
• To determine the nature of the relationship between the
causal variables and the effect to be predicted
• METHOD: Experiments

Dr. Sanjay Rastogi, IIFT, New Delhi 49