Presentation of Data

Frequency Distributions
A frequency distribution is a representation, either in a graphical or tabular
format, that displays the number of observations within a given
interval. ... The intervals must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
Frequency distributions are typically used within a statistical context.
Stem Leaf
A stem and leaf plot is a way to plot data where the data is split
into stems (the largest digit) and leaves (the smallest digits). ...
The stem and leaf plot is used like a histogram; it allows you to
compare data.

The following are the scores of 30 college students in a statistics test:

75 52 80 96 65 79 71 87 93 95
69 72 81 61 76 86 79 68 50 92
83 84 77 64 71 87 72 92 57 98

Construct a stem-and-leaf display.

Figure Stem-and-leaf display of test scores.

5 2 0 7
6 5 9 1 8 4
7 5 9 1 2 6 9 7 1 2
8 0 7 1 6 3 4 7
9 6 3 5 2 2 8
Example

The following data are monthly rents paid by a

sample of 30 households selected from a small city.

880 1081 721 1075 1023 775 1235 750 965 960
1210 985 1231 932 850 825 1000 915 1191 1035
1151 630 1175 952 1100 1140 750 1140 1370 1280

Construct a stem-and-leaf display for these data.

Solution Stem-and-leaf display of rents.

6 30
7 75 50 21 50
8 80 25 50
9 32 52 15 60 85 65
10 23 81 35 75 00
11 91 51 40 75 40 00
12 10 31 35 80
13 70
 Exercise
Develop your own Stem and Leaf Plot with the following
temperatures for June.

77 80 82 68 65 59 61
57 50 62 61 70 69 64
67 70 62 65 65 73 76
87 80 82 83 79 79 71
80 77
Example
The following stem-and-leaf display is prepared for the
number of hours that 25 students spent working on
computers during the last month.

Prepare a new stem-and-leaf display by grouping the stems.

0 6
1 1 7 9
2 2 6
3 2 4 7 8
4 1 5 6 9 9
5 3 6 8
6 2 4 4 5 7
7
8 5 6
 Grouped Data Vs Ungrouped
Data Data Frequency
Ungrouped data – 2 8
Data that has not 3 4

been organized into 5 6

7 7
groups. 8 2
Also called as raw 9 5

data.
Data Frequency
2–4 5
5–7 6
Grouped data - Data 8 – 10 10
that has been 11 – 13 8

organized into groups 14 – 16 4

17 – 19 3
(into a frequency
 Creating a Categorical Ungrouped
Frequency Distribution

Step 1: Make a table with the following columns in order:

class, tally, and frequency

Step 2: Tally (TOTAL) the data and place the results in the
tally column.

Step 3: Count the tallies and place the results in the

frequency column.
Example:
Below is the marks of 35 students in English test (out of
10). Arrange these marks in tabular form using tally
marks. 5, 8, 7, 6, 10, 8, 2, 4, 6, 3, 7, 5, 8, 5, 1, 7, 4, 6, 3,
5, 2, 8, 4, 2, 6, 4, 2, 8, 9, 5, 4, 7, 5, 5, 8.
Example:

Let us consider the following data:

2, 3, 3, 5, 7, 9, 7, 8, 9, 9, 2, 5, 3, 9, 3, 2, 5, 9, 8,
7, 3, 5, 7, 9, 8, 5, 2, 3

Design frequency table for above data.

 Example
These are the favorite colors of fifteen 2nd graders.
Red Blue Green
Yellow Red Yellow
Green Red Red
Red Green Blue
Blue Red Green
Class Tally Frequency

Total=
Grouped Frequency Distribution

• When the range of the data is large, the data must be grouped
into classes

41 104 112 118 87 95

105 57 107 67 78 125
109 99 105 99 101 92
Key Concept
Class Width
• The class width is the range of the class.

• Can be found by subtracting the lower class limit of

one class from the upper class limit of the next
class

Class width = Upper boundary – Lower boundary

# of classes
Frequency Distributions cont.

Calculating Class Midpoint or Mark

Lower limit  Upper limit

Class midpoint or mark 
2
 Rules For Grouped Data
Rule #1: Choose the classes
You will normally be told how many classes you need

Rule #2: Choose Class Width

ALWAYS round up to the next whole number

Rule #3: Mutually Exclusive

This means the class limits overlap or be
cannot contained in more than one
class.
 Rules For Grouped Data
Rule #4: Continuous
Even if there are no values in a class the class must be
included in the frequency distribution. There should be
no gaps in a frequency distribution.
(with the exception of a class with zero frequency)

Rule #5: Exhaustive

There should be enough classes to accommodate all of
the data

Rule #6: Equal Width

This avoids a distorted view of the data.
Table Class Widths, and Class Midpoints

Class Limits Class Width Class Midpoint

400 to 600 200 500
601 to 800 200 700.5
801 to 1000 200 900.5
1001 to 1200 200 1100.5
1201 to 1400 200 1300.5
1401 to 1600 200 1500.5
Frequency Distributions
Minutes Spent on the Phone
102 124 108 86 103 82
71 104 112 118 87 95
103 116 85 122 87 100
105 97 107 67 78 125
109 99 105 99 101 92

Make a frequency distribution table with five classes.

Minimum value =
Construct a Frequency Distribution Table
Minimum = 67, Maximum = 125
Number of classes = 5
Class width = 11.6 = 12

Class Limits Tally f

67 78 3
79 90 5
91 102 8
103 114 9
115 126 5

Total=30
Example:
Construct a frequency table for the
grouped following
data :
8, 10, 43, 15, 22, 34, 23, 45, 28, 49, 30, 21, 29, 17,
33, 39, 41, 48, 33, 25
 Example

• The total home runs hit by all players of each

of the 30 Major League Baseball teams during
the 2002 season. Construct a frequency
distribution table.
Table Home Runs Hit by Major League Baseball
Teams During the 2002 Season

Team Home Runs Team Home Runs

Anaheim 152 Milwaukee 139

Arizona 165 Minnesota 167
Atlanta 164 Montreal 162
Baltimore 165 New York Mets 160
Boston 177 New York Yankees 223
Chicago Cubs 200 Oakland 205
Chicago White Sox 217 Philadelphia 165
Cincinnati 169 Pittsburgh 142
Cleveland 192 St. Louis 175
Colorado 152 San Diego 136
Detroit 124 San Francisco 198
Florida 146 Seattle 152
Houston 167 Tampa Bay 133
Kansas City 140 Texas 230
Los Angeles 155 Toronto 187
Solution

230 124
Approximate width of each class  5  21.2
Now we round this approximate width to a
convenient number
– say, 22.
• Then our classes will be
124 – 145, 146 – 168 – 189, 190 – 211, 212 - 233
167,
Table Frequency Distribution for the Data of Table

Total Home Runs Tally f

124 – 145 |||| | 6
146 – 167 |||| |||| ||| 13
168 – 189 |||| 4
190 – 211 |||| 4
212 - 233 ||| 3
∑f = 30
 Relative Frequency and
Percentage Distributions

Calculating Relative Frequency of a Category

Frequency o f that category

Re lative frequency of a category  Sum of all frequencies

Calculating Percentage

Percentage = (Relative frequency) x 100

Solution

Table Relative Frequency and Percentage Distributions for Table

Relative
Total Home f Percentage
Runs Frequency
124 – 145 6 .200 20.0
146 – 167 13 .433 43.3
168 – 189 4 .133 13.3
190 – 211 4 .133 13.3
212 - 233 3 .100 10.0
∑f = 30 Sum = 99.9%
Sum
= .999
 Example

After conducting a survey of 30 of your classmates, you

are left with the following set of data on how many days
off each employee has taken this year:

7, 8, 9, 4, 10, 36, 19, 9, 26, 5, 11, 6, 2, 9, 10,

8, 16, 29, 7, 9, 8, 25, 4, 27, 8, 7, 6, 10, 34, 8

Construct a Frequency Table. Assume you want to divide the

data into 5 different classes.
 Answer
Class Limits Tally Frequency
2-8 14
9-15 8
16-22 2
23-29 4
30-36 2

Total: 30
Example

Some what None Somewhat Very Very None

Very Somewhat Somewhat Very Somewhat Somewhat
Very Somewhat None Very None Somewhat
Somewhat Very Somewhat Somewhat Very None
Somewhat Very very somewhat None Somewhat

Construct a ungrouped frequency distribution table for

these data.
Solution

Tabl Frequency Distribution of Stress on Job

e
Stress on Job Tally Frequency (f)
Very |||| |||| 10
Somewhat |||| |||| |||| 14
None |||| | 6
Sum = 30
 Example
• Determine the relative frequency and percentage for
the data in previous Table

Tabl Relative Frequency and Percentage Distributions of Stress on Job

e
Stress on Frequency (f)
Job Relative Frequency Percentage

Very 10 10/30 = .333 .333(100) = 33.3

Somewhat 14 14/30 = .467 .467(100) = 46.7
None 6 6/30 = .200 .200(100) = 20.0

Sum = 30 Sum = 1.00 Sum = 100

Example

The following data give the average travel time

from home to work (in minutes) for 50 states. The
data are based on a sample survey of 700,000
households conducted by the Census Bureau (USA
TODAY, August 6, 2001).
Example (Cont…)
22.4 18.2 23.7 19.8 26.7 23.4 23.5 22.5 24.3 26.7 24.2
19.7 27.0 21.7 17.6 17.7 22.5 23.7 21.2 29.2 26.1 22.7
21.6 21.9 23.2 16.0 16.1 22.3 24.4 28.7 19.9 31.2 22.6
15.4 22.1 19.6 21.4 23.8 21.9 21.9 15.6 22.7 23.6 20.8
21.1 25.4 24.9 25.5 20.1 17.1

Construct a frequency distribution table. Calculate the

relative frequencies and percentages for all classes.
Solution

31.2 15.4  2.63

Approximate width of each class  6
Solution

Tabl Frequency, Relative Frequency, and Percentage Distributions

e of Average Travel Time to Work
Relative
Class Boundaries f Frequency Percentage

15 to less than 18 7 .14 14

18 to less than 21 7 .14 14
21 to less than 24 23 .46 46
24 to less than 27 9 .18 18
27 to less than 30 3 .06 6
30 to less than 33 1 .02 2
Σf = 50 Sum = 1.00 Sum = 100%
 Example
The administration in a large city wanted to know the
distribution of vehicles owned by households in that city. A
sample of 40 randomly selected households from this city
produced the following data on the number of vehicles owned:

5 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 1 1
1 3 3 0 2 5 1 2 3 4
2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1
4 2 1 1 2 1 1 4 1 3

• Construct a frequency distribution table for these data,

and draw a bar graph.
Solution
Table Frequency Distribution of Vehicles Owned

Number of
Vehicles Owned
Households (f)
0 2
1 18
2 11
3 4
4 3
5 2
Σf = 40
Figure Bar graph for Table

20

18

16

14

12
Frequency

10

0
No Car 1 Car 2 Cars 3 Cars 4 Cars 5 Cars
Vehicles ow ned
 CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTIONS
Definition
A cumulative frequency distribution gives the
total number of values that fall below the upper
boundary of each class.
Example

Using the frequency distribution of Table in

ptrvious example, reproduced in the next slide,
prepare a cumulative frequency distribution for t
he home runs hit by Major League Baseball
teams during the 2002 season.
Example

Total Home Runs f

124 – 145 6
146 – 167 13
168 – 189 4
190 – 211 4
212 - 233 3
Solution

Table Cumulative Frequency Distribution of Home Runs by Baseball Teams

Class Limits f Cumulative Frequency

124 – 145 6 6
146 – 167 13 6 + 13 = 19
168 – 189 4 6 + 13 + 4 = 23
190 – 211 4 6 + 13 + 4 + 4 = 27
110 – 233 3 6 + 13 + 4 + 4 + 3 = 30
 CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTIONS cont.
Calculating Cumulative Relative Frequency and
Cumulative Percentage

Cumulative frequencyof a class

Cumulative relative frequency Totalobservations in the data
set
Cumulative percentage (Cumulative relative
frequency)100
Table Cumulative Relative Frequency and
Cumulative Percentage Distributions for
Home Runs Hit by baseball Teams

Cumulative
Cumulative Percentage
Class Limits Relative Frequency
124 – 145 6/30 = .200 20.0
146 – 167 19/30 = .633 63.3
168 – 189 23/30 = .767 76.7
190 – 211 27/30 = .900 90.0
110 - 233 30/30 = 1.00 100.0
 CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTIONS cont.
Definition
An ogive is a curve drawn for the cumulative
frequency distribution by joining with straight lines
the dots marked above the upper boundaries of
classes at heights equal to the cumulative
frequencies of respective classes.
Figure Ogive for the cumulative frequency
distribution in Table

30
Cumulative frequency

25

20

15

10

123.5 145.5 167.5 189.5 211.5 233.5

Total home runs
Shape
• A graph shows the shape of the distribution.

• A distribution is symmetrical if the left side of the

graph is (roughly) a mirror image of the right side.

• One example of a symmetrical distribution is the

bell-shaped normal distribution.

• On the other hand, distributions are skewed when

scores pile up on one side of the distribution,
leaving a "tail" of a few extreme values on the other
side.
 Positively and Negatively
Skewed Distributions
• In a positively skewed distribution, the scores
tend to pile up on the left side of the
distribution with the tail tapering off to the
right.

• In a negatively skewed distribution, the

scores tend to pile up on the right side and
the tail points to the left.