Pointers

Introduction

• A pointer is a variable that represents the

location (rather than the value) of a data item.
• They have a number of useful applications.
– Enables us to access a variable that is defined
outside the function.
– Can be used to pass information back and forth
between a function and its reference point.
– More efficient in handling data tables.
– Reduces the length and complexity of a program.
– Sometimes also increases the execution speed.
 Basic Concept

• Within the computer memory, every stored data

item occupies one or more contiguous memory
cells.
– The number of memory cells required to store a data
item depends on its type (char, int, double, etc.).
• Whenever we declare a variable, the system
allocates memory location(s) to hold the value of
the variable.
– Since every byte in memory has a unique address, this
location will also have its own (unique) address.
 Contd.

• Consider the statement

int xyz = 50;
– This statement instructs the compiler to allocate a
location for the integer variable xyz, and put the
value 50 in that location.
– Suppose that the address location chosen is 1380.

xyz  variable
50  value
1380  address
 Contd.
• During execution of the program, the system
always associates the name xyz with the
address 1380.
– The value 50 can be accessed by using either the
name xyz or the address 1380.
• Since memory addresses are simply numbers,
they can be assigned to some variables which
can be stored in memory.
– Such variables that hold memory addresses are
called pointers.
– Since a pointer is a variable, its value is also stored
in some memory location.
 Contd.

• Suppose we assign the address of xyz to a

variable p.
– p is said to point to the variable xyz.

Variable Value Address

xyz 50 1380 p = &xyz;
p 1380 2545

2545 1380 1380 50

p xyz
 Accessing the Address of a Variable
• The address of a variable can be determined
using the ‘&’ operator.
– The operator ‘&’ immediately preceding a variable
returns the address of the variable.
• Example:
p = &xyz;
– The address of xyz (1380) is assigned to p.
• The ‘&’ operator can be used only with a
simple variable or an array element.
&distance
&x[0]
&x[i-2]
 Contd.

• Following usages are invalid:

&235
• Pointing at constant.

int arr[20];
:
&arr;
• Pointing at array name.

&(a+b)
• Pointing at expression.
 Example

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a;
float b, c;
double d;
char ch;

a = 10; b = 2.5; c = 12.36; d = 12345.66; ch = ‘A’;

printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, a, &a) ;
printf (“%f is stored in location %u \n”, b, &b) ;
printf (“%f is stored in location %u \n”, c, &c) ;
printf (“%ld is stored in location %u \n”, d, &d) ;
printf (“%c is stored in location %u \n”, ch, &ch) ;
}
Output:

10 is stored in location 3221224908 a

2.500000 is stored in location 3221224904 b
12.360000 is stored in location 3221224900 c
12345.660000 is stored in location 3221224892 d
A is stored in location 3221224891 ch

Incidentally variables a,b,c,d and ch are allocated

to contiguous memory locations.
 Pointer Declarations
• Pointer variables must be declared before we
use them.
• General form:
data_type *pointer_name;
Three things are specified in the above
declaration:
1. The asterisk (*) tells that the variable pointer_name is a
pointer variable.
2. pointer_name needs a memory location.
3. pointer_name points to a variable of type data_type.
 Contd.

• Example:
int *count;
float *speed;
• Once a pointer variable has been declared, it
can be made to point to a variable using an
assignment statement like:
int *p, xyz;
:
p = &xyz;
– This is called pointer initialization.
 Things to Remember

• Pointer variables must always point to a data

item of the same type.
float x;
int *p;
:  will result in erroneous output
p = &x;
• Assigning an absolute address to a pointer
variable is prohibited.
int *count;
:
count = 1268;
 Accessing a Variable Through its Pointer

• Once a pointer has been assigned the address of

a variable, the value of the variable can be
accessed using the indirection operator (*).
int a, b;
int *p;
a=10; Equivalent to b=a
p = &a;
b = *p;
 Example 1

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a, b;
int c = 5; Equivalent
int *p;

a = 4 * (c + 5) ;

p = &c;
b = 4 * (*p + 5) ;
printf (“a=%d b=%d \n”, a, b) ;
}
 Example 2
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x, y; *&xx
int *ptr;
//add x - 10001, val = 10
x = 10 ;
ptr=&x;
ptr = &x ; &x&*ptr
y = *ptr ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, x, &x) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, *&x, &x) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, *ptr, ptr) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, y, &*ptr) ;
printf (“%u is stored in location %u \n”, ptr, &ptr) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, y, &y) ;

*ptr = 25;
printf (“\nNow x = %d \n”, x);
}
 Address of x: 3221224908
Output:
Address of y: 3221224904

10 is stored in location 3221224908

Address of ptr: 3221224900
10 is stored in location 3221224908
10 is stored in location 3221224908
10 is stored in location 3221224908
3221224908 is stored in location 3221224900
10 is stored in location 3221224904

Now x = 25
 Pointer Expressions

• Like other variables, pointer variables can be

used in expressions.
• If p1 and p2 are two pointers, the following
statements are valid:
sum = *p1 + *p2 ;
prod = *p1 * *p2 ;
prod = (*p1) * (*p2) ;
*p1 = *p1 + 2;
x = *p1 / *p2 + 5 ;
 Contd.
• What are allowed in C?
– Add an integer to a pointer.
– Subtract an integer from a pointer.
– Subtract one pointer from another (related).
• If p1 and p2 are both pointers to the same array, them
p2–p1 gives the number of elements between p1 and p2.
• What are not allowed?
– Add two pointers.
p1 = p1 + p2 ;
– Multiply / divide a pointer in an expression.
p1 = p2 / 5 ;
p1 = p1 – p2 * 10 ;
 Scale Factor
• We have seen that an integer value can be
added to or subtracted from a pointer variable.
int *p1, *p2 ;
int i, j;
:
p1 = p1 + 1 ;
p2 = p1 + j ;
p2++ ;
p2 = p2 – (i + j) ;
• In reality, it is not the integer value which is
added/subtracted, but rather the scale factor
times the value.
 Contd.

Data Type Scale Factor

char 1
int 4
float 4
double 8

– If p1 is an integer pointer, then

p1++
will increment the value of p1 by 4.
 Example:
Returns to required
no. of bytes find theforscale factors
data type representation
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by int is %d \n”, sizeof(int));
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by float is %d \n”, sizeof(float));
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by double is %d \n”, sizeof(double));
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by char is %d \n”, sizeof(char));
}

Output:

Number of bytes occupied by int is 4

Number of bytes occupied by float is 4
Number of bytes occupied by double is 8
Number of bytes occupied by char is 1
 Passing Pointers to a Function
• Pointers are often passed to a function as
arguments.
– Allows data items within the calling program to be
accessed by the function, altered, and then returned
to the calling program in altered form.
– Called call-by-reference (or by address or by
location).
• Normally, arguments are passed to a function
by value.
– The data items are copied to the function.
– Changes are not reflected in the calling program.
 Example: passing arguments by value
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{ a and b
int a, b; do not
a = 5 ; b = 20 ; swap
swap (a, b) ; Output
printf (“\n a = %d, b = %d”, a, b);
} a = 5, b = 20

void swap (int x, int y)

{
int t ;
t=x;
x=y; x and y swap
y=t;
}
 Example: passing arguments by reference
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{ *(&a) and *(&b)
int a, b; swap
a = 5 ; b = 20 ;
swap (&a, &b) ; Output
printf (“\n a = %d, b = %d”, a, b);
} a = 20, b = 5

void swap (int *x, int *y)

{
int t ;
t = *x ; *x and *y
*x = *y ; swap
*y = t ;
}
 Example: Sort 3 integers

• Three-step algorithm:
1. Read in three integers x, y and z
2. Put smallest in x
• Swap x, y if necessary; then swap x, z if necessary.
3. Put second smallest in y
• Swap y, z if necessary.
 Contd.

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x, y, z ;
………..
scanf (“%d %d %d”, &x, &y, &z) ;
if (x > y) swap (&x, &y);
if (x > z) swap (&x, &z);
if (y > z) swap (&y, &z) ;
………..
}
 sort3 as a function
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x, y, z ;
………..
scanf (“%d %d %d”, &x, &y, &z) ;
sort3 (&x, &y, &z) ;
………..
}

void sort3 (int *xp, int *yp, int *zp)

{ xp/yp/zp
if (*xp > *yp) swap (xp, yp); are
if (*xp > *zp) swap (xp, zp); pointers
if (*yp > *zp) swap (yp, zp);
}
 Contd.

• Why no ‘&’ in swap call?

– Because xp, yp and zp are already pointers that
point to the variables that we want to swap.
 Pointers and Arrays

• When an array is declared,

– The compiler allocates a base address and sufficient
amount of storage to contain all the elements of the
array in contiguous memory locations.
– The base address is the location of the first element
(index 0) of the array.
– The compiler also defines the array name as a
constant pointer to the first element.
 Example
• Consider the declaration:
int x[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ;
– Suppose that the base address of x is 2500, and each
integer requires 4 bytes.
Element Value Address
x[0] 1 2500
x[1] 2 2504
x[2] 3 2508
x[3] 4 2512
x[4] 5 2516
 Contd.

x  &x[0]  2500 ;

– p = x; and p = &x[0]; are equivalent.

– We can access successive values of x by using p++ or
p- - to move from one element to another.
• Relationship between p and x:
p = &x[0] = 2500
p+1 = &x[1] = 2504
p+2 = &x[2] = 2508 *(p+i) gives the
p+3 = &x[3] = 2512 value of x[i]
p+4 = &x[4] = 2516
 Example: function to find average
int *array
#include <stdio.h> float avg (int array[ ],int size)
main() {
{ int *p, i , sum = 0;
int x[100], k, n ;
p = array ; p[i]
scanf (“%d”, &n) ;
for (i=0; i<size; i++)
for (k=0; k<n; k++) sum = sum + *(p+i);
scanf (“%d”, &x[k]) ;
return ((float) sum / size);
printf (“\nAverage is %f”, }
avg (x, n));
}
 Example: Sorting by Roll Numbers
#include <stdio.h> for (k=0; k<n; k++)
struct stud scanf (“%d %s %f”, &class[k].roll,
{ class[k].dept_code, &class[k].cgpa);
int roll; for (j=0; j<n-1; j++)
char dept_code[25]; for (k=j+1; k<n; k++)
float cgpa; {
}; if (class[j].roll > class[k].roll)
{
main() t = class[j] ;
{ class[j] = class[k] ;
struc stud class[100], t; class[k] = t
int j, k, n; }
}
scanf (“%d”, &n); <<<< PRINT THE RECORDS >>>>
/* no. of students */ }
 Example
#include <stdio.h> swap_ref(_COMPLEX *a, _COMPLEX *b)
{
typedef struct { _COMPLEX tmp;
float real; tmp=*a;
float imag; *a=*b;
} _COMPLEX; *b=tmp;
}
main()
print(_COMPLEX *a)
{
{
_COMPLEX x={10.0,3.0}, y={-20.0,4.0};
printf("(%f,%f)\n",a->real,a->imag);
}
(10.000000,3.000000) print(&x); print(&y);
(-20.000000,4.000000) swap_ref(&x,&y);
(-20.000000,4.000000) print(&x); print(&y);
(10.000000,3.000000) }
 A Warning

• When using structure pointers, we should take

care of operator precedence.
– Member operator “.” has higher precedence than “*”.
• ptr –> roll and (*ptr).roll mean the same thing.
• *ptr.roll will lead to error.

– The operator “–>” enjoys the highest priority among

operators.
• ++ptr –> roll will increment roll, not ptr.
• (++ptr) –> roll will do the intended thing.
 Structures and Functions

• A structure can be passed as argument to a

function.
• A function can also return a structure.
• The process shall be illustrated with the help of
an example.
– A function to add two complex numbers.
 Example: complex number addition
#include <stdio.h> struct complex add (x, y)
struct complex { struct complex x, y;
float re; {
float im; struct complex t;
};
t.re = x.re + y.re ;
main() t.im = x.im + y.im ;
{ return (t) ;
struct complex a, b, c; }
scanf (“%f %f”, &a.re, &a.im);
scanf (“%f %f”, &b.re, &b.im);
c = add (a, b) ;
printf (“\n %f %f”, c.re, c.im);
}
 Example: Alternative way using pointers
#include <stdio.h> void add (x, y, t)
struct complex { struct complex *x, *y, *t;
float re; {
float im; t->re = x->re + y->re ;
}; t->im = x->im + y->im ;
}
main()
{
struct complex a, b, c;
scanf (“%f %f”, &a.re, &a.im);
scanf (“%f %f”, &b.re, &b.im);
add (&a, &b, &c) ;
printf (“\n %f %f”, c,re, c.im);
}
Dynamic Memory Allocation
 Basic Idea

• Many a time we face situations where data is

dynamic in nature.
– Amount of data cannot be predicted beforehand.
– Number of data item keeps changing during
program execution.
• Such situations can be handled more easily and
effectively using dynamic memory management
techniques.
 Contd.

• C language requires the number of elements in

an array to be specified at compile time.
– Often leads to wastage or memory space or program
failure.
• Dynamic Memory Allocation
– Memory space required can be specified at the time
of execution.
– C supports allocating and freeing memory
dynamically using library routines.
Memory Allocation Process in C

Local variables Stack

Free memory Heap

Global variables Permanent storage

area
Instructions
 Contd.

• The program instructions and the global

variables are stored in a region known as
permanent storage area.
• The local variables are stored in another area
called stack.
• The memory space between these two areas is
available for dynamic allocation during
execution of the program.
– This free region is called the heap.
– The size of the heap keeps changing
 Memory Allocation Functions

• malloc
– Allocates requested number of bytes and returns a
pointer to the first byte of the allocated space.
• calloc
– Allocates space for an array of elements, initializes
them to zero and then returns a pointer to the
memory.
• free
Frees previously allocated space.
• realloc
– Modifies the size of previously allocated space.
 Allocating a Block of Memory

• A block of memory can be allocated using the

function malloc.
– Reserves a block of memory of specified size and
returns a pointer of type void.
– The return pointer can be assigned to any pointer
type.
• General format:
ptr = (type *) malloc (byte_size) ;
 Contd.

• Examples
p = (int *) malloc (100 * sizeof (int)) ;
• A memory space equivalent to “100 times the size of an
int” bytes is reserved.
• The address of the first byte of the allocated memory is
assigned to the pointer p of type int.
p

400 bytes of space

 Contd.

cptr = (char *) malloc (20) ;

• Allocates 10 bytes of space for the pointer cptr of type char.

sptr = (struct stud *) malloc (10 *

sizeof (struct stud));
 Points to Note

• malloc always allocates a block of contiguous

bytes.
– The allocation can fail if sufficient contiguous
memory space is not available.
– If it fails, malloc returns NULL.
 Input the number of students.
5 Example
Input heights for 5 students
#include <stdio.h> printf("Input heights for %d
23 24 25 26 27
students \n",N);
main() Average height= 25.000000
for(i=0;i<N;i++)
{ scanf("%f",&height[i]);
int i,N;
float *height; for(i=0;i<N;i++)
float sum=0,avg; sum+=height[i];

printf("Input the number of students. \n"); avg=sum/(float) N;

scanf("%d",&N);
printf("Average height= %f \n",
height=(float *) malloc(N * sizeof(float)); avg);
}
 Releasing the Used Space

• When we no longer need the data stored in a

block of memory, we may release the block for
future use.
• How?
– By using the free function.
• General format:
free (ptr) ;
where ptr is a pointer to a memory block which
has been already created using malloc.
 Altering the Size of a Block
• Sometimes we need to alter the size of some
previously allocated memory block.
– More memory needed.
– Memory allocated is larger than necessary.
• How?
– By using the realloc function.
• If the original allocation is done by the statement
ptr = malloc (size) ;
then reallocation of space may be done as
ptr = realloc (ptr, newsize) ;
 Contd.

– The new memory block may or may not begin at the

same place as the old one.
• If it does not find space, it will create it in an entirely
different region and move the contents of the old block into
the new block.
– The function guarantees that the old data remains
intact.
– If it is unable to allocate, it returns NULL and frees
the original block.
 Pointer to Pointer

• Example:
int **p;
p=(int **) malloc(3 * sizeof(int *));

p[0]
p int ** int *
p[1] int *
int *

p[2]
 2-D Array Allocation
#include <stdio.h> void read_data(int **p,int h,int w)
#include <stdlib.h> {
int i,j;
int **allocate(int h, int w) for(i=0;i<h;i++)
{ for(j=0;j<w;j++)
int **p; Allocate array scanf ("%d",&p[i][j]);
int i,j; of pointers }

p=(int **) calloc(h, sizeof (int *) ); Elements accessed

for(i=0;i<h;i++) like 2-D array elements.
p[i]=(int *) calloc(w,sizeof (int));
return(p);
} Allocate array of
integers for each
row
 2-D Array: Contd.
void print_data(int **p,int h,int w) main()
{ {
int i,j; int **p;
for(i=0;i<h;i++) int M,N;
{ Give M and N
for(j=0;j<w;j++) 33 printf("Give M and N \n");
printf("%5d ",p[i][j]);
123 scanf("%d%d",&M,&N);
printf("\n"); 456 p=allocate(M,N);
} 789 read_data(p,M,N);
} printf("\n The array read as \n");
The array read as print_data(p,M,N);
1 2 3 }
4 5 6
7 8 9
 Linked List :: Basic Concepts

• A list refers to a set of items organized

sequentially.
– An array is an example of a list.
• The array index is used for accessing and manipulation of
array elements.
– Problems with array:
• The array size has to be specified at the beginning.
• Deleting an element or inserting an element may require
shifting of elements.
 Contd.

• A completely different way to represent a list:

– Make each item in the list part of a structure.
– The structure also contains a pointer or link to the
structure containing the next item.
– This type of list is called a linked list.

Structure 1 Structure 2 Structure 3

item item item

 Contd.
• Each structure of the list is called a node, and
consists of two fields:
– One containing the item.
– The other containing the address of the next item in
the list.
• The data items comprising a linked list need
not be contiguous in memory.
– They are ordered by logical links that are stored as
part of the data in the structure itself.
– The link is a pointer to another structure of the
same type.
 Contd.

• Such a structure can be represented as:

struct node
{
int item;
struct node *next;
};
node

item next
• Such structures which contain a member field
pointing to the same structure type are called
self-referential structures.
 Contd.

• In general, a node may be represented as

follows:

struct node_name
{
type member1;
type member2;
………
struct node_name *next;
};
 Illustration

• Consider the structure:

struct stud
{
int roll;
char name[30];
int age;
struct stud *next;
};
• Also assume that the list consists of three nodes
n1, n2 and n3.
struct stud n1, n2, n3;
 Contd.

• To create the links between nodes, we can

write:
n1.next = &n2 ;
n2.next = &n3 ;
n3.next = NULL ; /* No more nodes follow */
• Now the list looks like:
roll
name
age
next

n2 n3
n1
 Example
#include <stdio.h> n1.next = &n2 ;
struct stud n2.next = &n3 ;
{ n3.next = NULL ;
int roll;
char name[30]; /* Now traverse the list and print
int age; the elements */
struct stud *next;
}; p = n1 ; /* point to 1st element */
while (p != NULL)
main() {
{ printf (“\n %d %s %d”,
struct stud n1, n2, n3; p->roll, p->name, p->age);
struct stud *p; p = p->next;
}
scanf (“%d %s %d”, &n1.roll, }
n1.name, &n1.age);
scanf (“%d %s %d”, &n2.roll,
n2.name, &n2.age);
scanf (“%d %s %d”, &n3.roll,
n3.name, &n3.age);