ECE 476

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Lecture 23
Power System Protection and Transient Stability

Professor Tom Overbye

Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering
Announcements

 Design Project has firm due date of Dec 4

– Potentially useful article: T.J. Overbye, “Fostering Intuitive Minds
for Power System Design,” IEEE Power and Energy Magazine,
July-August 2003
 Be reading Chapter 13.
 HW 10 is 8.3, 8.5, 9.1,9.2 (bus 3), 9.13, 9.53 is due on
Thursday Dec 4.
 Final is Tuesday Dec 16 from 7 to 10pm in EL 165 (note this
is NOT what the web says). Final is comprehensive. One
new note sheet, and your two old note sheets are allowed

2
Fault Calculation Example

The zero, positive and negative sequence bus impedance matrixes for a
three bus, three phase power system are given below. Determine the per
unit fault current (sequence values only) for a double line to ground fault
involving phases "B and C" at bus 2. The prefault voltage at all buses is
1.0 per unit. Assume the fault impedance is zero.

0.1 0 0 0.12 0.08 0.04 

Z0  j  0 0.2 0  Z   Z   j 0.08 0.12 0.06 
   
 0 0 0.1 0.04 0.06 0.08 

3
Directional Relays

 Directional relays are commonly used to protect high voltage

transmission lines
 Voltage and current measurements are used to determine
direction of current flow (into or out of line)
 Relays on both ends of line communicate and will only trip the
line if excessive current is flowing into the line from both ends
– line carrier communication is popular in which a high frequency
signal (30 kHz to 300 kHz) is used
– microwave communication is sometimes used

4
Impedance Relays

 Impedance (distance) relays measure ratio of

voltage to current to determine if a fault exists on a
particular line

Assume Z is the line impedance and x is the

normalized fault location (x  0 at bus 1, x  1 at bus 2)
V1 V1
Normally is high; during fault  xZ
I12 I12 5
Impedance Relays Protection Zones

 To avoid inadvertent tripping for faults on other

transmission lines, impedance relays usually have several
zones of protection:
– zone 1 may be 80% of line for a 3 fault; trip is instantaneous
– zone 2 may cover 120% of line but with a delay to prevent
tripping for faults on adjacent lines
– zone 3 went further; most removed due to 8/14/03 events
 The key problem is that different fault types will present
the relays with different apparent impedances; adequate
protection for a 3 fault gives very limited protection for
LL faults
6
Impedance Relay Trip Characteristics

Source: August 14th 2003 Blackout Final Report, p. 78 7

Differential Relays

 Main idea behind differential protection is that during

normal operation the net current into a device should sum
to zero for each phase
– transformer turns ratios must, of course, be considered
 Differential protection is used with geographically local
devices
– buses
– transformers
– generators

I1  I 2  I 3  0 for each phase

except during a fault 8
Other Types of Relays

 In addition to providing fault protection, relays are used to

protect the system against operational problems as well
 Being automatic devices, relays can respond much quicker than
a human operator and therefore have an advantage when time is
of the essence
 Other common types of relays include
– under-frequency for load: e.g., 10% of system load must be shed if
system frequency falls to 59.3 Hz
– over-frequency on generators
– under-voltage on loads (less common)

9
Sequence of Events Recording

 During major system disturbances numerous relays

at a number of substations may operate
 Event reconstruction requires time synchronization
between substations to figure out the sequence of
events
 Most utilities now have sequence of events
recording that provide time synchronization of at
least 1 microsecond

10
Use of GPS for Fault Location

 Since power system lines may span hundreds of miles, a

key difficulty in power system restoration is determining
the location of the fault
 One newer technique is the use of the global positioning
system (GPS).
 GPS can provide time synchronization of about 1
microsecond
 Since the traveling electromagnetic waves propagate at
about the speed of light (300m per microsecond), the
fault location can be found by comparing arrival times of
the waves at each substation
11
Power System Transient Stability

 In order to operate as an interconnected system all of

the generators (and other synchronous machines) must
remain in synchronism with one another
– synchronism requires that (for two pole machines) the rotors
turn at exactly the same speed
 Loss of synchronism results in a condition in which no
net power can be transferred between the machines
 A system is said to be transiently unstable if following
a disturbance one or more of the generators lose
synchronism

12
Generator Transient Stability Models

 In order to study the transient response of a power

system we need to develop models for the generator
valid during the transient time frame of several
seconds following a system disturbance
 We need to develop both electrical and mechanical
models for the generators

13
Example of Transient Behavior

14
Generator Electrical Model

 The simplest generator model, known as the

classical model, treats the generator as a voltage
source behind the direct-axis transient reactance;
the voltage magnitude is fixed, but its angle
changes according to the mechanical dynamics

VT Ea
Pe ( )  '
sin 
Xd

15
Generator Mechanical Model

Generator Mechanical Block Diagram

Tm  J m  TD  Te ( )
Tm  mechanical input torque (N-m)
J  moment of inertia of turbine & rotor
 m  angular acceleration of turbine & rotor
TD  damping torque
Te ( )  equivalent electrical torque 16
Generator Mechanical Model, cont’d
In general power = torque  angular speed
Hence when a generator is spinning at speed s
Tm  J m  TD  Te ( )
Tm s  ( J m  TD  Te ( ))  s  Pm
Pm  J ms  TDs  Pe ( )
Initially we'll assume no damping (i.e., TD  0)
Then
Pm  Pe ( )  J ms
Pm is the mechanical power input, which is assumed
to be constant throughout the study time period 17
Generator Mechanical Model, cont’d
Pm  Pe ( )  J  ms
m  st    rotor angle
d m
m   m  s  
dt
 m   m  
Pm  Pe ( )  J s m  J s
J s  inertia of machine at synchronous speed
Convert to per unit by dividing by MVA rating, S B ,
Pm Pe ( ) J s 2s
 
SB SB S B 2s 18
Generator Mechanical Model, cont’d
Pm Pe ( ) J s 2 s
 
SB SB S B 2 s
Pm  Pe ( ) J  s2 1 
  (since  s  2 f s )
SB 2S B  f s
J  s2
Define  H  per unit inertia constant (sec)
2S B
All values are now converted to per unit
H  H
Pm  Pe ( )   Define M 
 fs  fs
Then Pm  Pe ( )  M  19
Generator Swing Equation
This equation is known as the generator swing equation
Pm  Pe ( )  M 
Adding damping we get
Pm  Pe ( )  M   D
This equation is analogous to a mass suspended by
a spring
k x  gM  Mx  Dx

20
Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB)

 To understand the transient stability problem we’ll

first consider the case of a single machine
(generator) connected to a power system bus with a
fixed voltage magnitude and angle (known as an
infinite bus) through a transmission line with
impedance jXL

21
SMIB, cont’d

Ea
Pe ( )  '
sin 
Xd  XL
Ea
M   D  PM  ' sin 
Xd  XL

22
SMIB Equilibrium Points
Equilibrium points are determined by setting the
right-hand side to zero
  Ea
M   D  PM  ' sin 
Xd  XL

Ea
PM  ' sin   0
Xd  XL
Define X th  X d'  X L
1  PM
X th 
  sin  
 Ea 
23
Transient Stability Analysis

 For transient stability analysis we need to consider

three systems
1. Prefault - before the fault occurs the system is
assumed to be at an equilibrium point
2. Faulted - the fault changes the system equations,
moving the system away from its equilibrium point
3. Postfault - after fault is cleared the system hopefully
returns to a new operating point

24
Transient Stability Solution Methods

 There are two methods for solving the transient

stability problem
1. Numerical integration
 this is by far the most common technique, particularly
for large systems; during the fault and after the fault the
power system differential equations are solved using
numerical methods
2. Direct or energy methods; for a two bus system
this method is known as the equal area criteria
 mostly used to provide an intuitive insight into the
transient stability problem
25
SMIB Example

 Assume a generator is supplying power to an

infinite bus through two parallel transmission lines.
Then a balanced three phase fault occurs at the
terminal of one of the lines. The fault is cleared by
the opening of this line’s circuit breakers.

26
SMIB Example, cont’d

Simplified prefault system

The prefault system has two

equilibrium points; the left one
is stable, the right one unstable
1  PM
X th 
  sin  
 Ea  27
SMIB Example, Faulted System

During the fault the system changes

The equivalent system during the fault is then

During this fault no
power can be transferred
from the generator to
the system
28
SMIB Example, Post Fault System

After the fault the system again changes

The equivalent system after the fault is then

29
SMIB Example, Dynamics

During the disturbance the form of Pe ( ) changes,

altering the power system dynamics:
1  EaVth 
   PM  X sin  
M  th  30
Transient Stability Solution Methods

 There are two methods for solving the transient

stability problem
1. Numerical integration
 this is by far the most common technique, particularly
for large systems; during the fault and after the fault the
power system differential equations are solved using
numerical methods
2. Direct or energy methods; for a two bus system
this method is known as the equal area criteria
 mostly used to provide an intuitive insight into the
transient stability problem
31