Viruses

Why are we learning about them?

The knowledge of how it enters, spreads and exist

in our body is required for diagnosis, treatment of
the disease and how to prevent from contracting
them
 Viruses
Some diseases that we are prone to are:

Hepatitis
HIV
Flu
Measles
Mumps
Viruses
Small
Subcellular agents
Unable to multiply
outside a host cell
Main purpose is to
deliver its genome into
the host cell to allow its
expression by the host
cell
Structure and Function
Inert outside the host
cell
Unable to generate
energy of their own
Depend on the
biochemical machinery
of eukaryotic or
prokaryotic cells for
replication
Structure and Function
Capsid
The capsid is the protein
shell that encloses the
nucleic acid
It protects the nucleic
acid from digestion by
enzymes
Contains special sites on
its surface that allow the
virion to attach to a host
cell
Structure and Function
Capsid
Provides proteins
that enable the virion
to penetrate the host
cell membrane and, in
some cases, to inject
the infectious nucleic
acid into the cell's
cytoplasm
Structure and Function
DNA/RNA
Long molecules which
carry genetic
information
Nucleic acid contains
genetic information
necessary to program
the synthetic machinery
of host cell for viral
replication
Structure and Function
Tail fibers
The virus has tails which
it attaches to the host
surface by means of
proteinaceous pins.
The tail contracts and the
tail plug penetrates the cell
wall and underlying
membrane, injecting the
viral nucleic acids into the
cell.
Viral populations do not
grow through cell division
Use host cell to produce
multiple copies and
assemble in the cell
Assembled virus, virion,
include one type of
nucleic acid (RNA/DNA)
and in simplest viruses,
has protective protein
coat
Assembly type of
replication is unique to
viruses
PRINCIPLE EVENTS
INVOLVED IN VIRAL
REPLICATION
1. ADSORPTION

2. PENETRATION

3. UNCOATING

4. SYNTHESIS of VIRAL NUCLEIC ACID

& PROTEIN

5. ASSEMBLY/MATURATION

6. RELEASE
 ADSORPTION

VIRUS ATTACHES TO THE CELL SURFACE VIA IONIC
INTERACTIONS WHICH ARE TEMPERATURE
INDEPENDENT
HOW?

VIRAL ATTACHMENT PROTEIN RECOGNIZES
SPECIFIC RECEPTORS SUCH AS PROTEIN,
CARBOHYDRATE OR LIPID ON THE OUTSIDE OF
THE CELL

THEREFORE, CELLS WITHOUT THE
APPROPRIATE RECEPTORS ARE NOT
SUSCEPTIBLE TO THE VIRUS
 PENETRATION
VIRUS ENTERS THE CELLS IN A VARIETY OF
WAYS BASED ON ITS NATURE.
a)FUSING WITH THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE;

BY DELIVERING ITS INTERNAL

COMPONENTS TO THE
CYTOPLASM OF THE CELL

a)VIA ENDOSOMES AT THE CELL

SURFACE
OCCURS WHEN THE ENVELOPED VIRUSES REQUIRES AN ACID pH FOR THE FUSION TO
OCCUR AND ARE UNABLE TO FUSE DIRECTLY W/ THE PLASMA MEMBRANE.
THEREFORE, THEY ARE TAKEN UP BY INVAGINATION OF THE MEMBRANE INTO THE
ENDOSOMES
 UNCOATING
VIRUS REPLICATION BEGINS AT THIS STAGE


NUCLEIC ACID IS TO BE SUFFICIENTLY
UNCOATED BEFORE THE PROCESS CAN BEGIN


THIS WILL NOT ALLOW THE INFECTIOUS
VIRUS PARTICLES TO BE RECOVERED FROM THE
CELL


AND THIS STAGE LASTS UNTIL NEW VIRIONS
ARE MADE
 Synthesis of Viral Nucleic Acid &
Protein
• Various virion components are synthesized
separately within the cell.
– Two stages of protein synthesis:
1. Transcription (Production of RNA from DNA)
2. Translation (assembly of protein by ribosomes, using
formation carried by RNA)
(RNA acts as a messenger)
• Then assembled to form progeny/descendant
particles.
 Assembly/Maturation
• After finalization of the viral form, it starts to
assemble.
• There may be maturation step that follows
after the assembly process.
– Maturation step:
• Some of the assembled viral particles will bud off from
the host cell.
• The viral protein then process to mature and become
infectious.
 Release
• Virus may be release due to cell lysis (destruction
of host cells).
• If it is enveloped
– It will bud out from the host cell.
• Budding viruses do not necessarily kill the host
cell.
– Thus, some budding viruses may be able to set up
persistent(constantly repeated) infections.
• Not all released viral particles are infectious
• The ratio of non-infectious to infectious particles
varies with the virus and the growth conditions.
 Release
• Released through cell lysis (breaking open of the host
cell)
• If virus is enveloped, may bud from cell (form at the
cell surface and is pinched off)
• Budding viruses do not necessarily kill cell
• Hence, some budding viruses may set up persistent
infections
• Not all released viral particles are infectious
• Non infectious particles : Infectious particles varies
with virus and growth conditions
• Viruses produce disease through different
mechanisms which depends on the species
• At cellular level, it primarily include cell lysis which
cause death of the cell
• In multicellular organisms, whole organism may suffer
the effects if enough cells die
• Multiplication of viruses usually cause cell to be
damaged or die
• But, since they depend on host cell for their own
survival, they tend to produce milder infections rather
than causing the death of the cell
• Exceptions: HIV, ebola virus, rabiesvirus
Ebola virus:
• Damage and destroys blood vessel walls
• Prevent platelets from coagulating (clotting)
• Causes a viral hemorrhagic fever
• Symptoms: fever, bleeding disorder and may
progress to high fever, shock and even death

Rabies virus:
• Transmit through saliva of animals
• Infects central nervous system
• Cause disease in brain and death
Intracellular location:
• Advantage:- Protects virus against host’s immune
mechanism
• Disadvantage:- Makes the virus vulnerable
• Dependant on the host cell’s synthetic machinery
• Slightest physical/chemical change in the host cell
caused by the viral infection may alter the machinery

• Small viruses (Hep B virus) are more resistant than

larger complex viruses (Herpes virus)
Insects could be considered as disease-bearing organisms. They carry and
transmits viruses to host by biting or sucking plant tissues hence act as
infectious agents or also known as vectors.

Viral spread through insects:

Plant Viruses
Transmitted from plant to plant through insects which feed on the sap of the
plants
Aphids, whiteflies, leafhoppers and beetles
 Animal viruses
 Carried through blood-sucking insects
 Mosquitoes
• Fecal-oral route
 Fecal particles passed to the oral cavity

Viral spread through fecal-oral route:

 Norovirus
 Affects people of all ages
 Transmitted by faecally contaminated hands, food or water or by person-to-
person contact

 Rotaviruses
 Affects mainly children
 Spread through direct contact

Viral spread through air:

 Influenza viruses
 Commonly known as the flu
 Spread through coughing and sneezing

 Viral spread through sexual contact:

 HIV
 Viral infection is a type of infection caused by the virus
 Causes diseases by disrupting the healthy homeostasis of the body

HOWEVER..
 They exist relatively harmless within an organism

Benefits:
 Increase immune system’s response against infection by other pathogens
 Herpes simplex virus - causes cold sores
 Varicella zoster virus – causes chicken pox (Children)
 Latent chicken pox infections – shingles (Adults)
 The pathogenic virus remain in dominant state within the human body – It is called
virus LATENCY

USUALLY..
 Viruses causes cells to proliferate
 But does not cause malignancy

SOME VIRUSES..
 Papillomaviruses
 Established cause of cancer
Classification of viruses
Size and shape
Chemical composition
Structure of genome
Size and shape
• Viruses are usually
much smaller than
bacteria and are
submicroscopic
(cannot be seen
with a light
microscope)
• Most range in size
from 5 to 300
nanometers
 Helical viruses
Helical filament of
• Helical – helical array of caspid
proteins (protomers) wrapped
around a helical filament of nucleic
acid
• Eg. Ebola virus, rabies virus

*Caspid -The protein coat or shell of a

virus particle, surrounding the nucleic
acid or nucleoprotein core.
Capsomere - basic subunits of the capsid,
an outer covering of protein that protects
the genetic material of a virus
Ebola virus Rabies virus
 Polyhedral viruses
• Polyhedral - Many-sided
Capsid is in the shape of
icosahedron (polyhedral with
20 triangular faces).
• Eg. Adenovirus, poliovirus.

Icosahedron
 Enveloped Viruses
• Enveloped - consist of nucleic acid
surrounded by either a helical or polyhedral
core and covered by an envelope
• Eg. Enveloped helical = Influenza virus
Enveloped polyhedral = Herpes simplex virus.

Enveloped helical

Influenza virus Herpes simplex Enveloped

polyhedral
 Complex viruses
• Binal (complex) - neither helical nor
polyhedral forms or has combinations of
these forms
• Pleomorphic (irregular shaped) or have
Complex structures
• Eg. Bacteriophage, poxvirus

T-even bacteriophage

Poxvirus
 Structure of genome
• The viral genome is a single or
segmented, circular or linear
molecule of nucleic acid
functioning as the genetic
material of the virus.
• It can be single-stranded or
double-stranded DNA or RNA
(but never both), and codes for
the synthesis of viral components
and viral enzymes for replication.
• Different genome requires
different replication strategies

*Genome: All of the genetic information, the entire

genetic complement, all of the hereditary material
possessed by an organism
 CONTROL OF
VIRAL INFECTIONS
&
DISEASES
Immunoprophylaxis - to provide immune
protection against a
specific disease

• Immunoprophylaxis against viral illnesses

( illness caused by presence of virus) includes

1. Active prophylaxis
- Vaccination
2. Passive prophylaxis
 Vaccination - Prevent infection by viruses
• Cheap
• Effective
- dramatic decline in illness & death
- infections previously deadly have been
..gotten rid of
Immune Response to Vaccines
• Vaccination evokes (call forth) an antibody
response
• Stimulates T lymphocytes

• Effectiveness measured by
1.% of recipients protected (most effective 90%)
2.Duration
3.Degree of protection(quantity)
Antibody – known as immunoglobin
- identifies and neutralizes foreign …………
…………...objects such as bacteria & viruses

Recognizes unique part (antigen)

T lymphocytes
• Identify specific antigens
• Generate specific responses to eliminate pathogen
( eg virus)
• Leave background of pathogen in form of ‘memory cells’
• Strong & rapid response the next round
 Active Prophylaxis _ Produces own specific immunity
(Vaccines)
• Types of viral vaccines
• Greater protection
1. Attenuated live vaccine • Long-lasting protection
• Not suitable for
immunocompromised patients
&pregnant women

2. Killed viruses Short-lasting

• Safer for
3. Recombinant produced immunocompromised
patients &pregnant
antigens women
Passive Prophylaxis
 Definition
• Use of an antiserum from another host
(person or animal) to provide temporary
protection against a specific infectious
or toxic agent.

• Prophylaxis = A measure taken for

the prevention of a disease or
condition
 Passive prophylaxis is an artificially
acquired passive immunity.

What is passive immunity?

Passive immunity is a type of
immunity acquired by the transfer of
antibody from one individual into
another.
 Types of Passive Immunity
1. Naturally Acquired 2. Artificially Acquired
Passive Immunity Passive Immunity
 Occurs during  Results when
pregnancy, in which antibodies produced
certain antibodies by another animal
are passed from the or human are given
maternal into the
fetal bloodstream. to someone to
 Acquired through prevent or treat
breastfeeding disease.
 Sanitation and Vector Control
Many viral diseases are controlled by reducing
exposure to the virus by:
i. Control of non human viral reservoirs.
 E.g Elimination of rabies in some countries through
removal of stray dogs and vaccination of domestic
animals.
ii. Vector Control
 Examples of how to limit access of arthropod to
human includes draining swamps, applying
insecticide, screening home and using insect
repellent or protective clothing.
iii. Improve sanitation
 Antiviral Chemotherapy
• Antiviral chemotherapeutic can be divided
into three catagories :
i. Virucidal agent
 directly inactivate intact viruses
ii. Antiviral agent
 an agent that kills viruses or suppresses
their replication and hence, inhibits their
capability to multiply and reproduce.
iii. Immunomodulators
drugs which either suppress the
immune system (immunosuppresents)
or stimulate the immune system
(immunostimulants)
 Immunosuppresents
• Powerful medicines that dampen down
the activity of the body’s immune system.

Example : Controlling severe eczema

because they suppress the over activity of
the immune system that is causing the
inflammation in the skin.
 Immunostimulants
• Used in immunodeficiency disorders,
chronic infection and cancer
 Interferons
• A group of proteins that are produced in a
person’s body in response to an attack by a
virus.
• When a cell becomes infected by a virus, it
releases tiny amounts of interferons which
then attach themselves to neighboring cells
and prompt them to begin producing their own
protective antiviral enzymes.
 Cytokines
• molecules produced by cells that act
on other cells to stimulate or inhibit
their function.