Bulk Deformation

Processes
 Bulk-Deformation Processes
PROCESS GENERAL CH ARACTERISTICS
Forging Production of discrete parts with a set of dies; some finishing operations usually
necessary; similar parts can be made by casting and powder-metallurgy techniques;
usually performed at elevated temperatures; dies and equipment costs are high;
moderate to high labor costs; moderate to high operator skill.
Rolling
Flat Production of flat plate, sheet, and foil at high speeds, and with good surface finish,
especially in cold rolling; requires very high capital investment; low to moderate labor
cost.
Shape Production of various structural shapes, such as I-beams and rails, at high speeds;
includes thread and ring rolling; requires shaped rolls and expensive equipment; low to
moderate labor cost; moderate operator skill.
Extrusion Production of long lengths of solid or hollow products with constant cross-sections,
usually performed at elevated temperatures; product is then cut to desired lengths;
can be competitive with roll forming; cold extrusion has similarities to forging and is
used to make discrete products; moderate to high die and equipment cost; low to
moderate labor cost; low to moderate operator skill.
Drawing Production of long rod, wire, and tubing, with round or various cross-sections; smaller
cross-sections than extrusions; good surface finish; low to moderate die, equipment
and labor costs; low to moderate operator skill.
Swaging Radial forging of discrete or long parts with various internal and external shapes;
generally carried out at room temperature; low to moderate operator skill.

TABLE 6.1 General characteristics of bulk deformation processes.

 [1] Forging Operations

Forging can be carried out as:

a. cold working (T < 0.3Tm)
b. warm working (0.3Tm < T < 0.5Tm )
c. hot working (T > 0.6Tm)

Three basic types:

1. open-die forging (also known as upsetting)
2. Impression die forging
3. Closed-die forging
Ideal (homogeneous) Deformation

FIGURE 6.1 (a) Ideal deformation of a solid cylindrical

specimen compressed between flat frictionless dies. This
process is known as upsetting. (b) Deformation in
upsetting with friction at the die-workpiece interfaces.
 Equations for Open-Die Forging
h0  h1
Reduction in height = * 100%
h0
 
h h  h0 
e1  0 1 and 1  ln 
h0  h1 
 

v
e1   v
h0 1  
and h1
Grain Flow Lines

FIGURE 6.2 Grain flow lines in

upsetting a solid steel cylinder at
elevated temperatures. Note the
highly inhomogeneous
deformation and barreling. The
different shape of the bottom
section of the specimen (as
compared with the top) results
from the hot specimen resting on
the lower, cool die before
deformation proceeded. The
bottom surface was chilled; thus it
exhibits greater strength and
hence deforms less than the top
surface. Source: J. A. Schey et al.,
IIT Research Institute.
 Deformation force and work calculations
Assumptions: no friction at the die-workpiece interface, and material is
perfectly plastic with a yield stress (Y), initial height (h 0), initial area
(A0), instantaneous height (h1), and instantaneous area (A1).
 F  Y .A1 A .h
A1  0 0
  h1
1
1
Work  volume.  .d   K n   .d  Y .
0
1

n
K
Average Flow Stress Y  1
n 1
 Impression-Die Forging

FIGURE 6.14 Schematic illustration of stages in impression-die forging. Note the

formation of flash, or excess material that is subsequently trimmed off.

Analysis F = (Kp)(Yf)(A)
Simple shapes, without flash 3-5
Simple shapes, with flash 5-8
Complex shapes, with flash 8-12

TABLE 6.2 Range of Kp values in Eq. (6.21) for impression-die forging.

Orbital Forging Process
FIGURE 6.16
Schematic illustration of
the orbital-forging
process. Note that the
die is in contact with
only a portion of the
workpiece surface. This
process is also called
rotary forging, swing
forging, and rocking-die
forging and can be used
for forming bevel gears,
wheels, and bearing
rings.
 Heading Piercing Operations

FIGURE 6.17 Forging heads on FIGURE 6.18 Examples of piercing

fasteners such as bolts and rivets. operations.
These processes are called heading.
 Cogging Operation

FIGURE 6.19 Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar. With simple tools, the thickness and
cross-section of a bar can be reduced by multiple cogging operations. Note the barreling after cogging. Blacksmiths use a
similar procedure to reduce the thickness of parts in small increments by heating the workpiece and hammering it
numerous times.
 Roll Forging Operation

FIGURE 6.20 Schematic illustration of a roll forging (cross-rolling) operation. Tapered

leaf springs and knives can be made by this process with specially designed rolls. Source:
After J. Holub.
 Manufacture of Spherical Blanks
FIGURE 6.21 Production of steel balls for bearings
by the skew-rolling process. Balls for bearings can
also be made by the forging process shown in Fig.
6.22.

FIGURE 6.22 Production of steel

balls by upsetting of a cylindrical
blank. Note the formation of flash.
The balls are subsequently ground
and polished for use as ball
bearings and in other mechanical
components.
 Defects in Forging

1. Surface Cracking: due to excessive stresses and poor die design

2. Internal Cracks: due to oversized billets
3. Cold Shuts: due to small corner radii in the mold
4. Exposed grains: poor material flow and original blank orientation

Forgings are generally anisotropic due to various directions in the metal

flow.
 Defect Formation In Forging

FIGURE 6.25 Effect of fillet radius on defect formation in forging. Small fillets (right side
of drawings) cause the defects. Source: Aluminum Company of America.
 Forging A Connecting Rod

FIGURE 6.26 Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine. Note
the amount of flash that is necessary to fill the die cavities properly.
 [2] Rolling Operations
Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness (flat rolling) or changing the cross-section
(shape rolling) of a long workpiece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls.

Rolling Operations
a. Flat Rolling
b. Shape Rolling

Plates: thickness>0.25
Sheets: 0.004<thickness<0.25
Foils: thickness<0.004

Ingot rolling is replaced by continuous casting/rolling with a higher efficiency and lower
cost.

Rolling can be performed as hot, warm, or cold forming operations.

 Flat-And-Shape-
Rolling Processes

FIGURE 6.29 Schematic outline

of various flat-and-shape-rolling
processes. Source: American Iron
and Steel Institute.
 Mechanics of Flat-Rolling

wo and ho : initial width and thickness

wf and hf : final width and thickness
Vo and Vf : entry and exit velocities
Vr : tangential velocity of roll
R: roll radius
L: roll gap
FIGURE 6.31 Schematic illustration of the
flat-rolling process. A greater volume of
metal is formed by rolling than by any other
metalworking process.
 Neutral (No-Slip) Point
Vo : entry velocity of the workpiece
Vf : exit velocity of the workpiece
Vr : tangential velocity of roll
: angle of acceptance

V f  Vr
Forward Slip = Vr
Notes
FIGURE 6.32 Relative velocity distribution
between roll and strip surfaces. Note the At the “no-slip” point: Vr = Vworkpiece
difference in the direction of frictional forces. (neutral point)
The arrows represent the frictional forces
acting on the strip. Before the neutral point: Vr > Vworkpiece
After the neutral point: Vr < Vworkpiece
 Forces and Power

Draft = h = ho – hf = 2 . R µ = tan  (angle of acceptance)

 L  R.h
F  L.w.Y

Y  1.15Y
2FLN
Power  P  HP
33,000 K . n
Y
1 n
F .L
Torque  T   P /  ho
  ln


2 h
 f


 Notes on Force Calculations
As friction increases, the draft, forces, power and the damage to surface
finish increase.

Roll forces can be reduced by:

–reducing friction
–Reducing rolls size
–Reducing draft
–Applying tension forces (back, front, or both)

Diverse effects of roll forces:

–Rolls deflection
–Rolls flattening
 Problems in Rolling Operations

1. Rolls Deflection: forces bend rolls elastically, this results in thicker

parts at the center (CROWN), which can be reduced by:
• Grinding rolls thicker at the center (CAMBER)~0.01“, or
• Bending rolls by applying moments at the end
2. Roll Flattening: results in larger roll radius, and hence larger contact
area, which results in larger rolling forces for the same rolling draft.
3. Plastic deformation of rolls (Thermal Camber)
4. Stretch of roll stand (low rigidity)
5. Spreading, especially with high thickness/width ratio. Solution: edger
mills.
 Roll Deflection and Spreading

FIGURE 6.37 (a) Bending of straight FIGURE 6.38 Increase in the width
cylindrical rolls (exaggerated) because of the of a strip (spreading) in flat rolling.
roll force. (b) Bending of rolls, ground with Spreading can be similarly observed
camber, that produce a sheet of uniform when dough is rolled with a rolling
thickness during rolling. pin.
 Workpiece Defects

1. Wavy edges: due to roll bending

2. Surface cracks: due to poor ductility and/or low rolling temeperature
3. Alligatoring: due to defects in the original cast
4. Residual stresses (only when not desired): the type of these stresses
are:
• Tensile in the middle/compressive at surface when using small
rolls or draft
• Compressive in the middle and tensile on the surface when using
large rolls or draft.
 Workpiece Defects In Flat Rolling

FIGURE 6.39 Schematic illustration of typical defects in flat rolling: (a)wavy edges; (b)
zipper cracks in the center of strip; (c) edge cracks; (d) alligatoring.
Shape Rolling
FIGURE 6.44 Stages in shape rolling
of an H-section part. Various other
structural sections, such as channels and
I-beams, are also rolled by this process.
 Ring-Rolling

FIGURE 6.45 (a) Schematic illustration of a ring-rolling operation. Reducing the thickness
results in an increase in the part’s diameter. (b) Examples of cross-sections that can be
formed by ring rolling.
 Thread-Rolling Processes

FIGURE 6.46 Thread-rolling processes: (a) flat dies and (b) two-roller dies. These
processes are used extensively in making threaded fasteners at high rates of production.
 Machined And Rolled Threads

FIGURE 6.47 (a) Schematic illustration of machined or rolled threads. (b) Grain-flow lines in
machined and rolled threads. Unlike machined threads, which are cut through the grains of the metal,
rolled threads follow the grains and are stronger, because of the cold working involved.
 Mannesmann Process

FIGURE 6.48 Cavity formation by secondary tensile stresses in a solid round bar and its use in the rotary-tube-piercing
process. This procedure uses the principle of the Mannesmann mill for seamless tube making. The mandrel is held in
place by the long rod, although techniques have been developed in which the mandrel remains in place without the rod.
 [3] Extrusion Processes

Extrusion Processes
1.     Direct Extrusion
2.     Indirect Extrusion
3.     Hydrostatic Extrusion
4.     Impact Extrusion
5.     Lateral Extrusion
Types Of Extrusion

FIGURE 6.49 Types of

extrusion. (a) direct; (b)
indirect; (c) hydrostatic;
(d) impact.
 Extrusion

FIGURE 6.51 Schematic illustration of three different

types of metal flow in direct extrusion.

(a) Ideal: no-friction at the billet-container-

die interfaces
FIGURE 6.50 Extrusion and
(b) Typical: friction at the billet-container-die
examples of products made by
sectioning off extrusions. Source:
interfaces
Kaiser Aluminum. (c) High container wall-billet friction
 Extrusion Parameters
1.     die angle ()
2.     extrusion-ratio (R)
3.     circumscribing-circle-diameter (CCD): the
diameter of the smallest circle into which the
extruded cross-section will fit.
4.     shape factor (ratio of the perimeter to the cross-
sectional area)
5.     billet temperature
6.     ram speed
7.     type of lubricant
 Extrusion Force/Power Calculations
A0
R Extrusion Ratio
Af
 
 Ao  L 
 1  ln   ln f
L   ln( R ) Absolute value of the true strain
A 
 f   o 

u  Y . 1 Energy dissipation per unit volume (for perfectly plastic materials)

Work  Ao .Lo .u  F .Lo  p. Ao .Lo Work supplied by the ram force (F), which
travels a distance Lo

P  u  Y . ln( R ) Extrusion pressure (ideal – no friction). For strain-hardening

materials, use average flow stress Y
 2L 
P  Y .1.7 R  
Extrusion pressure (friction between die and billet only)
 D0 
 Extrusion Constant

P=Ke*ln(R)

FIGURE 6.55 Extrusion constant, Ke, for various materials as a function of temperature.
Source: After P. Loewenstein, ASTME Paper SP63-89.
 Cold and Impact Extrusion
FIGURE 6.56 Examples of cold
extrusion. Arrows indicate the
direction of material flow. These
parts may also be considered as
forgings.

FIGURE 6.57 (a) Impact extrusion of a

collapsible tube (Hooker process).(b) Two
examples of products made by impact
extrusion, these parts may also be made by
casting, forging, and machining, depending
on the dimensions and materials involved
and the properties desired. Economic
considerations are also important in final
process selection.
 Notes on Extrusion Practices
1. Cold Extrusion has the following advantages over hot extrusion: better mechanical properties (due
to work hardening), better dimensional accuracy (little finishing operations) and surface finish (no
oxide film), and high production rates at relatively low cost. However cold extrusion requires more
expensive tooling (high hardness, strength, toughness, and fatigue strength), complex lubrication
and cooling process, and high capacity presses.
2. Hydrostatic extrusion requires much lower forces due to the increased ductility of the material
(suitable for brittle materials), and the low friction. Also, it is possible to use low die angles as well
as high extrusion ratios.
3. Metal flow in the die influences the quality and mechanical properties of the parts.
4. Extrusion ratio (R) can go up to 400:1
5. Coaxial extrusion (cladding) is possible when the strength and ductility of both metals are
compatible.
6. Hot extrusion: low forces, excessive die wear (can be reduced with preheated dies), non-uniform
deformation (can be reduced with preheated dies), oxide film on the billet (reduced by a smaller ram
than the container), poor surface finish due to surface oxidation.
7. Dead-metal zones produce extrusions with bright finishes
8. Die materials are generally hot-work die steels, coated with Zicronia to extend the die life.
 Defects in Extrusion
Three principal defects in extrusion:

(1) Surface Cracking

Cause: too high extrusion temperature, friction or speed (intergranular)
or at low temperature due to periodic sticking of the extrudate and the die land (knows
as bamboo defect) especially during hydrostatic extrusion. Can be reduced by
increasing the extrusion speed.

(2) Extrusion defects (pipe, tailpipe, and fishtailing)

Cause: metal flow on the container wall draw surface oxides and impurities towards the
center of the billet. Can be reduced by modifying the flow pattern to more homogeneous
by reducing friction and minimizing the temperature gradient.

(3) Internal Cracking (chevron cracking or centerburst)

Cause: hydrostatic (secondary) tensile stresses at the centerline of the deformation zone.
Can be reduced reduced by adjusting the extrusion parameters (die angle, extrusion
ratio, friction) so the the deformation zones around the die overlap.
 Chevron Cracking

FIGURE 6.59 (a) Deformation zone in extrusion, showing rigid and plastic zones. Note that the plastic zones do not meet,
leading to chevron cracking. The same observations are also made in drawing round bars through conical dies and drawing flat
sheet plate through wedge-shaped dies. Source: After B. Avizur. (b) Chevron cracking in round steel bars during extrusion. Unless
the part is inspected properly, such internal detects may remain undetected and possibly cause failure of the part in service.
 Extrusion of Seamless Tube

FIGURE 6.60 Extrusion of a seamless tube. The hole in the billet may be prepunched or
pierced, or it may be generated during extrusion.;
 [4] Drawing Operations
Drawing is similar to extrusion, except “pulling” through a die is used
instead of pushing. It can be used to make wires as small as 0.001 in
diameter.
Process Parameters
Ao , Af initial and final diameters
 = the die angle
F = Drawing Force
d = Drawing Stress
FIGURE 6.62 Variables in
drawing round rod or wire.  = coefficient of friction
 Maximum Reduction per pass
The maximum allowed drawing stress is the yield stress of the existing material. Therefore, there is a maximum strain (reduction) per pass.

For a perfectly plastic material, the maximum reduction in cross sectional area is 63% (where ε1=1).

For a strain hardening material, the maximum reduction in cross sectional area can be calculated as:

 n 1
 1 e
 Tube Drawing

FIGURE 6.67 Various methods of tube drawing.

 Defects is Drawing Operations

1. Center cracking is caused by inhomogeneous plastic deformation

which increases by increasing the die angle, decreasing the reduction
per pass, increasing friction, and the presence of inclusions.

2. Seams, longitudinal scratches/folds in the material which can open up

during subsequent forming operations.

3. Residual stresses (transverse, longitudinal, radial) due to

inhomogeneous deformation. Very light reductions leaves
compressive residual stresses on the workpiece surface which
improves fatigue strength.
 Rotary Swaging

Also known as Rotary Forging, where a

solid rod or a tube is reduced in diameter
by the reciprocating radial movement of
two or four dies driven by a set of rollers
in a cage.

FIGURE 6.71 Schematic illustration of the swaging process: (a) side view and (b) front view.
(c) Schematic illustration of roller arrangement, curvature on the four radial hammers (that give
motion to the dies), and the radial movement of a hammer as it rotates over the rolls.
 Rotary Swaging (continued)

Mandrels are used to control the internal diameter and/or shape (example gun/rifle barrels).
The workpiece diameter is limited to 2 inches, while the length is limited to the length of
the mandrel.
Generally performed at room temperature.

FIGURE 6.72 Reduction of outer and inner diameters of tubes by swaging. (a) Free sinking without a
mandrel. The ends of solid bars and wire are tapered (pointing) by this process in order to feed the
material into the conical die. (b) Sinking on a mandrel. Coaxial tubes of different materials can also be
swaged in one operation.
 Cross-Sections Produced By Swaging

FIGURE 6.73 (a) Typical cross-sections produced by swaging tube blanks with a constant wall thickness on
shaped mandrels. Rifling of small gun barrels can also be made by swaging, using a specially shaped mandrel.
The formed tube is then removed by slipping it out of the mandrel. (b) These parts can also be made by swaging.
 Die Failures

Failure of dies in metal forming operations results from one or more of the
following causes:

1. Improper die design

2. Defective die materials
3. Improper heat treatment and finishing operations
4. Improper installation, assembly, and alignment
5. Overheating and heat checking
6. Excessive wear
7. Overloading, misuse, and improper handling

Dies can fail by cracking, chipping, wear, heat checking (from thermal cycling),
or deformation (especially in hot working)