SIGNAL

SIGNAL THEORY
THEORY
Ms. Neha Singh
Asst. Prof.
Dept. of ECE, I.E.T., Alwar
 Types of signals
• Continuous • Discrete

• Periodic • Aperiodic

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Types of signals
• Even signal • Odd signal

x(t) = x(-t) x(t) = -x(-t)

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Energy and Power signal
• Energy of a signal • Power of a signal

• 0<E<∞ • not limited in time.

• have values only in the limited
time duration • energy of a power signal is
• power of an energy signal
infinite
is 0 • power of power signal is
finite, 0 < P < ∞

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Signal Energy

• Strength of signal: area under the

curve after squaring.
• This is energy.

• This notion of energy of a signal is

defined as L2 norm(p=2).

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Signal Power

• Power is a time average of energy.

This is useful when the energy of the
signal goes to infinity.
• "Energy signals" have finite energy.
• "Power signals" have finite and non-
zero power.

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Remember……..
• Any signal with finite energy will have zero
power.
• Any signal with non-zero power will have
infinite energy.
• Are all signals either energy or power
signals?
– No, any infinite-duration, increasing-magnitude
function will not be either.

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Signal space
Real
• The waveforms are viewed as vectors
Complex
vector
in
vector
certain vector space
spacecalled signal space.
space

• A vector space is a set V of elements

defined on a scalar field (C or R )and
satisfying the axioms that follow in the
next 3 slides.
• Our consideration: space of finite-energy
complex functions. This is complex vector
space.

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
Axioms of a vector space
• Addition: For each v Є V and u Є V , there
is a vector (v + u ) Є V called the sum of v
and u satisfying
– Commutativity: v + u = u + v,
– Associativity: v + (u + w) = (v + u) + w,
– There is a unique 0 Є V such that v + 0 = v for
all v Є V,
– For each v Є V, there is a unique -v such that v
+ (-v) = 0.

8/11/2010 Signal Theory-Ms.Neha Singh 9

Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
Axioms of a vector space
• Scalar multiplication: For each scalar
α and each v Є V there is a vector αv
Є V called the product of α and v
satisfying
– Scalar associativity: α(βv) = (α β)v for all
scalars, α, β, and all v Є V,
– Unit multiplication: for the unit scalar 1, 1v = v
for all v Є V.

8/11/2010 Signal Theory-Ms.Neha Singh 10

Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
Axioms of a vector space
• Distributive laws:
– For all scalars α and all v & u Є V, α(v + u) = α v +
α u.
– For all scalars α, β and all v Є V, (α + β)v = α v +
β v.

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
For any complex numbers v and u

Thus, if v and u are finite-energy

functions

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Inner product
• An inner-product ,<v,u> on a complex
vector space V is a complex valued
function of two vectors v, u Є V,
having properties given on next slide.
• A vector space equipped with an
inner product is called an inner
product space

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
Properties of Inner product
• Hermitian symmetry: <v,u> = <u,v>*
• Hermitian bilinearity:
<αv+βu, w> = α <v,w> + β <u,w >
(and consequently <v,αu+βw> = α*<v,u> +
β*<u,w>
• Strict positivity: <v,v> ≥ 0, with
equality if and only if v = 0.

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Inner product (contd.)

• norm ||v||, or length of a vector v is

defined as
||v||= <v,v>

• Two vectors v and u are defined to

be orthogonal if <v,u> = 0.

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
Inner product of vectors
• The inner product of vectors
v = (v1,…,vn) and u = (u1,…,un) is usually
defined as

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Projections

* The distance from 0 to u is ||u||= <u,u>

* The distance from v to u (and from u to v) is ||v – u||.
*

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
Projection of u onto v

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
One dimensional Projection
Theorem

• Let u and v be vectors in an inner

product space (either on C or R).
Then u = u||v + where u||v = αv (i.e.
u||v is collinear with v) and < ,v> = 0
(i.e. is orthogonal to v). The scalar
α is uniquely given by α = <u,v>/||v||2

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Proof

To prove:

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Pythagorean Theorem
• If u and v are orthogonal, then

To see this, note that,

The cross terms disappear due to

orthogonality. Thus,

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Schwartz Inequality
• Statement: Let u and v be vectors in an inner
product space (either C or R). Then,

• Proof: Since, . Using Pythagorean

theorem,

Since each term above is non-negative, so

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Orthonormal bases
• A set of vectors {φ1,φ2,…} is
orthonormal if

• In other words, orthonormal set is a

set of orthogonal vectors where each
vector is normalized to unit length.

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Gram Schmidt
Orthogonalization
• Given signals s1,…, sn, such that
• Assume φ1= s1.
• Describe s2 as sum of component parallel
to φ1 and that perpendicular to φ1
• The perpendicular component is the next
orthogonal vector φ2 given as (s2-the
parallel component).
• And so on for more orthogonal bases.

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Gram Schmidt
Orthogonalization:Steps
• φ1=s1.
• φ2=s2-projection of s2 on φ1 .
• φ3=s3-(projection of s3 on φ1+
projection of s3 on φ2) .
• And so on….

Note: number of bases=number of signals

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 Orthonormal
representation of signals

• First find orthogonal bases set and

then divide each by its magnitude, to
make its magnitude unity.
• This normalized set of orthogonal
bases is the set of orthonormal
bases.

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
 For continuous time
signals…….
• Given
• To find φ1.Set all coefficients except s11=0 . Then,
squaring both sides,

• Since, , so

• Thus, the first base is φ1= s1(t)/s11.

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE
• For second signal
• That is,

• Which yields,
• To find s22,

• Determine the orthonormal base

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Asst. Prof., Dept. of ECE