Computer Networks

Evolution of Computer Networks

Definition of Computer Networks

A Computer networks is a collection of

nodes or computers or systems

and devices

connected together through

communication devices

and transmission media Guided Media Wireless Media

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Computer Communications

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Advantages of Networks

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Evolution of Computer Networks

The chronology of significant computer-network developments

1940 - George Stibitz used a Teletype machine to send

instructions for a problem set from his model at Dartmouth
College to his Complex Number in New York and received results
back by the same means

1950 - Early networks communicating computers included the

Military radar system Semi-Automatic Ground Environment
(SAGE)

1960 - The Commercial airline reservation system Semi-

Automatic Business Research Environment (SABRE) went
online with two connected Mainframes

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1962 - Linking output systems like teletypewriters to computers
was an interest at Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA)
when J.C.R Licklider was hired and developed a working group
called Intergalactic Computer Network. This Concept, allowed
the data and programs stored within each computer to be accessed
from anywhere in the world, by any of the computers connected to
the network

1964 - Researchers at Darmouth developed the Darmouth Time Sharing System for
Distributed users of large computer systems. At the same Time Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT), a research group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a
computer to route and manage telephone connections

1965 - Thomas Marill and Lawrence G.Roberts created the first Wide Area Network
(WAN). This was an immediate precursor to the ARPANET. At the same time, the first
widely used telephone switch that used true computer control was introduced by Western
Electric

1972 - Commercial services using X.25 were deployed and later used as an underlying
infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks
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1991 - Home Broadband Created

2001 - Home broadband enters mainstream usage and begins growing at a faster
rate than the dial-up services

2009 - 10 Gigabyte Ethernet was the only market segment to show sequential port

2010 - 100 Gigabyte Ethernet was fully completed

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 Networks
Types of Networks

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Different Types of Networks

Depending upon the geographical area covered by a network, it is classified

as :

Local Area Network (LAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN)

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Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices,

usually within an office building or home

LAN enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that
may be needed by multiple users

Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters and no more than
a mile

Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device

Has lower cost compared to MAN or WAN

LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fiber optic
cable can be used in wired LAN’s.

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Every LAN uses a protocol – a set of rules that governs how packets are
configured and transmitted.

Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain topology. These

topologies include:

-Bus Topology
-Ring Topology
-Star Topology
-Mesh Topology

LANs are capable of very high

transmission rates (100s Mb/s to G b/s).

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Limitations of LAN

Expensive To Install

Requires Administrative time

File Server May Fail

Cable may break

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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a
city or a large campus.

A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several
blocks buildings to entire cities.

A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be
used by many individuals and organizations.

A MAN often acts as a high speed network to

allow sharing of regional resources.

A MAN typically covers an area of between

and 50 km diameter.

Examples of MAN: Telephone company network

That provides a high speed DSL to customers
and cable TV network

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Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of the
world.

A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many miles apart.

To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed phone lines or
wireless links such as satellites.

Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers, or
gateways, which enable them to share data.

The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.

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Personal Area Network (PAN)

A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and computer
devices (including telephones) in close proximity of around a few meters within a
room

It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for connecting
to a larger network such as the internet.

PAN’s can be wired or wireless.

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer

network used for communication among computer
devices, including telephones and personal
digital assistants, in proximity to an individual's body.

The devices may or may not belong to the person in

question. The reach of a PAN is typically a few meters.

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 Networks
Topologies

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Physical

The geometric arrangement of components that make up the

LAN

Logical

The possible connections between pairs of networked end-

points that can communicate

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LAN Topologies (Physical)

Bus

Star

Ring

Switched

Daisy chains

Hierarchies

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BUS Topology

All nodes are interconnected, peer to peer, using a single, open-ended cable
Both ends of the bus must be terminated with a terminating resistor to prevent
signal bounce

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 Advantages of Bus
topology

•Easy to implement and extend

•Well suited for temporary networks that must be set up in a hurry

•Typically the least cheapest topology to implement

•Failure of one station does not affect others

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 Limitations of Bus
topology

•Difficult to administer/troubleshoot

•Limited cable length and number of stations

•A cable break can disable the entire network; no redundancy

•Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run

•Performance degrades as additional computers are added

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Ring Topology

•Started out as a simple peer-to-peer LAN topology

•Each networked workstation had two connections: one to each of its nearest
neighbors

•Data was transmitted unidirectionally

around the ring

•Sending and receiving of data takes place

by the help of TOKEN

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Token Passing

Token contains a piece of information which along with data is sent by the source
computer

This token then passes to next node, which checks if the signal is intended to it

If yes, it receives it and passes the empty to into the network

otherwise passes token along with the

data to next node

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Advantages of Ring Topology

•This type of network topology is very organized

•Performance is better than that of Bus topology

•No need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations

•Additional components do not affect the performance of network

•Each computer has equal access to resources

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Limitations of Ring Topology

•Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and
destination, slower than star topology

•If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected

•Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different

components

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Star Topology

Have connections to networked devices that “radiate” out form a common

point

Each networked device in star topology can access the media independently

Have become the dominant topology type in contemporary LANs

Stars have made buses and rings obsolete in LAN topologies

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Advantages of Topology

•Compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance

•Easy to connect new nodes or devices

•Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network

•Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network

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Limitations of Topology

•If central device fails whole network goes down

•The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost
of the network

•Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in such

topology is depended on capacity of central device

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 Networks
OSI Layers

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Seven Layers of OSI

File Transfer, Email, Remote Login 🡪

ASCII Text, Sound (syntax layer) 🡪

Establish/manage connection 🡪
End-to-end control & error checking
(ensure complete data transfer): TCP 🡪

Routing and Forwarding Address: IP 🡪

Two party communication: Ethernet 🡪

How to transmit signal; coding Hardware

means of sending an receiving data on a carrier

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Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

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The physical layer of the OSI model defines connector and interface specifications,
as well as the medium (cable) requirements. Electrical, mechanical, functional,
and procedural specifications are provided for sending a bit stream on a computer
network.

Components of the physical layer include:

• Cabling system components
• Adapters that connect media to physical interfaces
• Connector design and pin assignments
• Hub, repeater, and patch panel specifications
• Wireless system components
• Parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
• Network Interface Card (NIC)
In a LAN environment, Category 5e UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable is
generally used for the physical layervfor individual device connections. Fiber optic
cabling is often used for the physical layer in a vertical or riserv backbone link.

The IEEE, EIA/TIA, ANSI, and other similar standards bodies developed
standards for this layer.
Note: The Physical Layer of the OSI model is only part of a LAN (Local Area
Network).
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Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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Allows a device to access the network to send and receive messages
• Offers a physical address so a device’s data can be sent on the network
•Works with a device’s networking software when sending and receiving messages

• Provides error-detection capability Common networking components that

function at layer 2 include:

• Network interface cards

• Ethernet and Token Ring switches
• Bridges

NICs have a layer 2 or MAC address. A switch uses this address to filter and
forward traffic, helping relieve congestion and collisions on a network segment.

Bridges and switches function in a similar fashion; however, bridging is normally a

software program on a CPU, while switches use Application-Specific Integrated
Circuits (ASICs) to perform the task in dedicated hardware, which is much faster.

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Hop-to-hop delivery

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Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

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Provides an end-to-end logical addressing system so that a packet of data can be
routed across several layer 2 networks (Ethernet, Token Ring, Frame Relay, etc.).

Note that network layer addresses can also be referred to as logical addresses.

Routers use the network or subnet portion of the IP addressing to route traffic
between different networks. Each router must be configured specifically for the
networks or subnets that will be connected to its interfaces

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Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

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Offers end-to-end communication between end devices through a network. Depending on
the application, the transport layer either offers reliable, connection-oriented or
connectionless , best-effort communications.
Some of the functions offered by the transport layer include:
• Application identification
• Client-side entity identification
• Confirmation that the entire message arrived intact
• Segmentation of data for network transport
• Control of data flow to prevent memory overruns
• Establishment and maintenance of both ends of virtual circuits
• Transmission-error detection
• Realignment of segmented data in the correct order on the receiving side
• Multiplexing or sharing of multiple sessions over a single physical link
The most common transport layer protocols are the connection-oriented TCP and the
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connectionless UDP
Session layer

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

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Provides various services, including tracking the number of bytes that each end of the
session has acknowledged receiving from the other end of the session. This session layer
allows applications functioning on devices to establish, manage, and terminate a dialog
through a network. Session layer functionality includes:

• Virtual connection between application entities

• Synchronization of data flow
• Creation of dialog units
• Connection parameter negotiations
• Partitioning of services into functional groups
• Acknowledgements of data received during a session
• Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device

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Presentation
layer

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

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The presentation layer, is responsible for how an application formats the data to be sent
out onto the network.

The presentation layer basically allows an application to read (or understand) the
message.

Examples of presentation layer functionality include:

• Encryption and decryption of a message for security
• Compression and expansion of a message so that it travels efficiently
• Graphics formatting
• Content translation
• System-specific translation

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Application layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

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This layer is what the user sees, in terms of loading an application (such as Web browser
or e-mail); that is, this application layer is the data the user views while using these
applications.

Examples of application layer functionality include:

• Support for file transfers
• Ability to print on a network
• Electronic mail
• Electronic messaging
• Browsing the World Wide Web

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Summary of layers

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 Networks
TCP/IP Protocol Model

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TCP/IP Protocol Model

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI
model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport, and application. However, when TCP/IP is
compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five
layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application.

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TCP/IP and OSI model

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ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical, logical, port, and specific.

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Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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For an Example node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with
physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN).
As the figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the
computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12

hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as
shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.
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A part of an internet with two routers connecting three LANs. Each device
(computer or router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to only one link and
therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each router has three pairs
of addresses, one for each connection.

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Shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The sending computer is
running three processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port addresses j and k.
Process a in the sending computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical addresses change from hop to
hop, logical and port addresses remain the same from the source to destination.

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