Group 4

IMAGING SCIENCE
AND INFORMATICS
REPORTERS:
Casil, Honey Lujes Marie
Cellan, Jude Carl
Clarke Billy Joe
Cuico, Devon Rey
Villanueva, Ara Mae
 DISPLAY OF
DIGITAL IMAGES

CASIL * CELLAN * CLARKE * CUICO * VILLANUEVA

DISPLAY OF DIGITAL IMAGES
In medical imaging, the purpose of the display may be to permit technologists to visually
assess the adequacy of acquired images, for physicians to interpret images, or to guide
physicians performing interventional procedures.

Cuico
 The display system of a workstation or other computer typically consists
of a display interface, also referred to by terms such as “video interface”
and “graphics adapter,” in the computer.
 A display system may be designed to display color images or only
monochrome (grayscale) images. A system that can display color images
can also display grayscale images.
 Images from the radiological modalities, consisting of rectangular arrays
of numbers, in general do not benefit from being displayed in color and
so are commonly displayed on high-quality grayscale monitors for
interpretation.
 Some radiological images, such as co-registered dual modality images
(e.g., SPECT/CT and PET/CT), false color images (commonly used in
nuclear medicine myocardial perfusion imaging), and volume rendered
displays (discussed later in this chapter) of three-dimensional image sets,
benefit from being displayed partly or entirely in color.
Cuico
 In most humans, there are three types of cone cells, which differ in spectral
sensitivity. One is most sensitive to yellow-green light (although largely
responsible for the perception of red), another to green light, and the third to blue
light.
 In a color display monitor, each displayed pixel generates red, green, and blue
light, with the intensities of each independently controlled.
 In grayscale radiological images, each pixel value is typically represented by a
single integer, commonly stored in 16 bits, although fewer than 16 of the bits may
be used.
 In color images, each pixel is commonly represented by three integers,
commonly 8 or 10 bits each, which are contained in a 32-bit word.
 The three integers designate the intensities of the red, green, and blue light to be
generated for that pixel

Cuico
Display Interface and Conversion of a Digital
Image into Analog Signals for Display
 A computer’s display interface converts a digital image into a signal that is
displayed by a display monitor.
 For a digital image to be displayed, it is first sent to this display memory by the
computer’s CPU under the control of an application program.
 Older display interfaces produce analog signals that are displayed by monitors;
such a display interface contains one or more digital-to-analog converters
(DACs), which convert each digital number to an analog voltage signal.
 Newer display interfaces send the image information in digital form to the
display monitors; these monitors contain DACs to convert the digital pixel
values to analog signals.

Cuico
 Display Monitor
 For approximately 80 years, cathode ray tubes (CRTs) were used for the electronic
display of images.
 CRT displays are rapidly being replaced by flat-panel displays and can no longer be
obtained on most medical imaging equipment.
 There are several types of flat-panel displays, including gas plasma, light emitting
diode, organic light emitting diode, and field emissive displays.
 Most flat-panel monitors used today to display medical images have liquid crystal
displays (LCDs) because of their superior performance and longevity.
 The term “pixel,” when referring to display monitors, has a meaning different from a
picture element of an image; it refers to a physical structure in a monitor that displays
a single pixel of an image.
 Most types of monitors have physical pixels, although CRT monitors do not.

Cuico
 Cathode Ray Tube Monitors
 A CRT in a display monitor is an evacuated container, usually made of glass,
with components that generate, focus, and modulate the intensity of one or
more electron beams directed onto a fluorescent screen.
 When a voltage is applied between a pair of electrodes, the negative
electrode is called the cathode and the positive electrode is called the anode.
 The source of the electrons is a cathode that is heated by an electrical current
and the anode is a thin aluminum layer in contact with the fluorescent screen.
 A large constant voltage, typically 10 to 30 kV, applied between these two
electrodes creates an electric field that accelerates the electrons to high
kinetic energies and directs them onto the screen.

Cuico
 Between the cathode and the screen is a grid electrode. A voltage applied
to the grid electrode is used to vary the electric current (electrons per
second) of the beam.
 The intensity of the light from any location on the screen is proportional
to the electric current in the beam, which is determined by the analog
voltage signal applied to the grid electrode.
■FIGURE 5-7 Grayscale CRT display monitor. The electron gun contains a heated
cathode, the source of the electrons in the beam, and a grid electrode, which modulates
the intensity (electrical current) of the beam. This CRT uses an electromagnet to focus
the beam and two pairs of electromagnets to steer the beam. (One pair, not shown, is
perpendicular to the pair in the diagram. Alternatively, electrodes placed inside the CRT
can perform these functions.

Cuico
■FIGURE 5-8 Order of conversion of pixels in a digital image to analog voltages to form
a video signal (raster scan). Data is scanned from left to right, with a retrace to the next
row (dashed line). The actual size of the matrix is much smaller than depicted.

Cuico
 The CRT of a color monitor is similar to that of a grayscale monitor, but
has three electron guns instead of one, producing three electron beams.
 The three electron beams are close to one another and are steered as one,
but their intensities are modulated separately.
 The fluorescent screen consists of triads of tiny dots or stripes of
phosphors emitting red, green, and blue light.
 Thus one electron beam produces red light, another produces green light,
and the third produces blue light.
 As mentioned above, mixtures of red, green, and blue light can create the
perception of many colors by the human visual system.

Cuico
Liquid Crystal Display Monitors
 In LCDs, the pixels are physical structures; in many grayscale LCDs and all
color LCDs, each pixel consists of three subpixels, whose light intensities are
independently controlled.
 A backlit LCD consists of a uniform light source, typically containing
fluorescent tubes or light emitting diodes and a layer of diffusing material; a
layer of LC material between two glass plates; and a polarizing filter on each
side of the glass holding the LC material (Figure 5-9).
 Visible light, like any electromagnetic radiation, may be considered to consist of
oscillating electrical and magnetic field. The oscillations are perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the light.
 Unpolarized light consists of light waves whose oscillations are randomly oriented.
 A polarizing filter is a layer of material that permits components of light waves
oscillating in one direction to pass, but absorbs components oscillating in the
perpendicular direction.
 An LC material consists of long organic molecules and has properties of both a
liquid and a crystalline material. For example, it flows like a liquid.
 In an LCD display, the light that has passed through the first filter is polarized.
Next, the light passes through a thin layer of LC material contained between two
glass plates.
 Each pixel or subpixel of an LCD has a pair of electrodes.
 Figure 5-9 shows the filters oriented so that the subpixels are dark when no
voltage is applied.
 As the voltage applied to the pixel or subpixel is increased, the LC molecules
twist, changing the polarization of the light and decreasing the fraction absorbed
by the second filter, thereby making the pixel or subpixel brighter.
 Three major variants of LCD technology are twisted nematic (TN), in-plane
switching (IPS0), and patterned vertical alignment (PVA).
 PVA was implemented as a compromise between the TN and IPS technologies,
with an intermediate price.
 Each pixel consists of three subpixels, one containing a filter transmitting only
red light, the second transmitting only green light, and the third transmitting only
blue light.
 As mentioned previously, mixtures of red, green, and blue light can create the
perception of most colors.
 In theory, each pixel or subpixel of a flat-panel display could be controlled by its
own electrical conductor.
 A three-megapixel grayscale display would contain at least 3 million electrical
conductors and a color display of the same pixel format would have three times as
many.
 For a three-megapixel grayscale display (2,048 by 1,536 pixels), only 2,048 row
pathways and 1,536 column pathways (if there are not subpixels) are required.
 In active matrix LCDs, each pixel or subpixel has a transistor and capacitor.
 The transistors and capacitors are constructed on a sheet of glass or quartz
coated with silicon.
 Active matrix LCDs are also called thin film transistor (TFT) displays.
Performance of Display Monitor
 Display monitors usually are the final component of the imaging chain and their
performance can significantly affect radiological imaging.
 Monitors are characterized by parameters such as spatial resolution, spatial
distortion, contrast resolution, aspect ratio, maximal luminance, black level,
dynamic range, uniformity of luminance, noise, lag and refresh rate.
 The photometric quantity* describing the brightness of a monitor (or other light
source) is luminance.
 Photometric quantities and units describe the energy per unit time carried by light,
modified to account for the spectral sensitivity of the human eye.
 A person with normal vision perceives a given radiance of green light as being
brighter than, for example, an equal radiance of red or blue light.
 Luminance is the rate of light energy emitted or reflected from a
surface per unit area, per unit solid angle, corrected for the photopic†
spectral sensitivity of the human eye.
 The SI unit of luminance is the candela per square meter (cd/m2).
 The contrast resolution of a monitor is mainly determined by its
dynamic range, defined as the difference between its maximal and
minimal luminance.
 The minimal luminance of a monitor, measured in total darkness with
the entire screen black, is called the black level.
 The contrast ratio is the maximal luminance divided by the black
level.
 Veiling glare is stray light from the face of the monitor that occurs when
an image is displayed.
 Veiling glare causes a reduction in image contrast.
 Spatial linearity (freedom from spatial distortion) describes how
accurately shapes and lines are presented on the monitor.
 CRT monitors, whose images are formed by scanning electron beams,
must refresh the image at a rate greater than a threshold to avoid the
perception of flicker in the image.
 This threshold, called the flicker-fusion frequency, increases with the
brightness of the image and the fraction of the visual field occupied by the
image and varies from person to person; it ranges from about 60 to 80
frames per second for every bright monitors.
 LCD monitors typically suffer more from lag in displaying dynamic images
than do CRT monitors.
 The lag in LCD monitors is caused by the time required to change the
electrical charges stored by the small capacitors in individual pixels.
There are practical differences between LCD and CRT
monitors
 LCD monitors require much less space, are much lighter, consume less
electrical power, and generate much less heat.
 CRT monitors permit very wide viewing angles.
 The lifetimes of LCD monitors, limited by the brightness of the fluorescent
tubes in the blacklights, exceed those of CRT monitors, limited by the
electron guns and phosphor.
 Digital mammograms and radiographs contains many more pixels than other
radiological images (Figure 5-7) and are referred to as large matrix-size
images.
 It is desirable for a radiologist to view an entire image at or near maximal spatial
resolution.
 To avoid a reduction in spatial resolution when an image is displayed, a monitor
should have at least as many pixels in the horizontal and vertical directions as the
image.
 The distance from a person’s eyes to the face of a display monitor of a
workstation commonly ranges from about 50 to 60 cm.
 To assess perceived contrast and spatial resolution, scientists studying human
vision commonly use test images containing a sinusoidal luminance pattern
centered in an image of constant luminance equal to the average luminance of the
sinusoidal pattern (Fig. 5-10).
■FIGURE 5-10 Sinusoidal luminance A test patterns are used by researchers to assess the perception
of contrast as a function of spatial frequency and average luminance. A. Four different spatial
frequencies with the background luminance equal to the average luminance of the pattern are shown.
B. Four different contrast levels at a fixed frequency. Sinusoidal lines (in blue) above the patterns
show the change in luminance as amplitude and frequency variations
 Contrast may be defined as C = (Lmax 2 Lmin)/Lavg, where Lmax is the maximal
luminance in the pattern, Lmin is the least luminance, and Lavg is the average
luminance.
 The smallest luminance difference (Lmax 2 Lmin) that is detectable by half of a group
of human observers is known as a just noticeable difference ( JND).
■■FIGURE 5-11 Contrast sensitivity of the human visual system as a function of spatial frequency.
 Figure 5-11 is a graph of contrast sensitivity. As a function of spatial frequency (cycles
per mm at a 60 cm viewing distance) from a typical experiment.
 The threshold contrast is reduced to about a tenth of the maximum at about 20 cycles
per visual degree and reduced to less than one hundredth of the maximum at about 40 to
50 cycles per visual degree (Barten, 1999).
 At a 60-cm viewing distance, a visual degree is equivalent to a distance of 10.5 mm
(10.5 mm 5 60 cm 3 tan 1) on the face of the monitor.
 Thus, at a 60-cm viewing distance, a person with good vision perceives contrast best at
about half a cycle per mm, perceives contrast reduced to less than a tenth of this at
about two cycles per mm, and perceives very little contrast beyond about four cycles
per mm.
 Two cycles per mm is approximately equivalent to 4 pixels per mm, or a pixel pitch of
1 mm per 4 pixels 5 0.25 mm and four cycles per mm is approximately equivalent to 8
pixels per mm, or a pixel pitch of 1 mm per 8 pixels 0.125 mm.
MONITOR PIXEL FORMATS
Display monitors are available in many face sizes and pixel formats:

Common Formats for Commercial Color Monitors

- pixel formats: 1280 by 1,204 pixels and 1600 by 1,200 pixels

Digital Radiographs
- are typically stored in formats of about 2,000 by 2,500 pixels.
- are used to display in common active display size for monitors of 54
cm (21 inches) diagonal, including mammograms. These monitors are 5
Megapixel monitors.

Cellan
5 Megapixel Monitors
- the faces of the monitors typically have aspect ratios (width to height) of
about 3 to 4 or 4 to 5.
- common pixel format for these monitors is 2,560 pixels by 2,048 pixels.
- this pixel format permits the display of an entire large matrix image at
near
maximal resolution.
- typical pixel pitch is 0.165 mm

3 Megapixel Monitors
- less-expensive 54-cm diagonal monitors and have pixel formats of 2,048
by 1,536 pixels
- typical pixel pitch is 0.21 mm.

Cellan
2 Megapixel Monitors
- Less-expensive 54-cm diagonal monitors and have pixel formats of 1,600
by 1,200 pixels

LCD monitors with 76 cm (30 inches) diagonal faces

-available in ten-, 6-, and 4-megapixel formats.
-intended to replace a pair of 54-cm diagonal monitors and permit the
simultaneous side-by-side display of two radiographs or mammograms in
full or near full spatial resolution.
Landscape Display - a monitor orientated so
that the horizontal field is greater than the
vertical

Portrait Display - an orientation

with the vertical field greater than
the horizontal

Cellan
• Monitors used for the display of digital radiographs are usually used in the
portrait orientation, although the newer 76 cm diagonal monitors that
display two radiographs in full or near full resolution side by-side are used
in the landscape orientation.

• When an entire image is displayed on a display monitor with a smaller

number of horizontal or vertical pixels than the image itself, the image
must be reduced to a smaller pixel format by averaging neighboring pixels
in the stored image, causing a loss of spatial resolution.

• The zoom function permits a portion of the image to be displayed in full

spatial resolution on such a monitor and the pan function on the
workstation allows the viewing of different portions of the image.

Cellan
DISPLAY OF IMAGE CONTRAST AND
CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT
• A display system must be able to display a range of pixel values from the
minimal pixel value to the maximal value in the image.
• For displaying the image, a range of light intensities is available, from the
darkest to the brightest the display monitor is calibrated to produce. A great
amount of choice exists in how the mapping from pixel value to light
intensity is performed.
• A mapping can be selected that optimizes the contrast of important features
in the image, thereby increasing their conspicuity. Alternatively, if this
mapping is poorly chosen, the conspicuity of important features in the
image can be reduced.
33
Cellan
• Lookup tables (LUTs) are commonly used by medical image processing and
display computers to affect the display of image contrast. Such use of a LUT may
be considered to be a method of image processing, however, it is intimately
connected with displaying images .
• A LUT is simply a table containing a value for each possible pixel value in an
image.
• For example, if each pixel in an image could have one of 4,096 values, a LUT
would have 4,096 elements. In practice, each pixel value in the transformed
image is determined by selecting the value in the LUT corresponding to the pixel
value in the unmodified image.
• For example, if the value of a pixel in the unmodified image is 1,342, the value
of the corresponding pixel in the transformed image is the 1,342nd value in the
LUT

34
Cellan
 FIGURE 5-12 Display interface showing function of a lookup table (LUT). An image is
transferred to the memory of the display interface. The display interface selects pixel values in a
raster pattern, and sends the pixel values, one at a time, to the LUT. The LUT produces a digital
value indicating display intensity to the DAC. The DAC converts the display intensity from a
digital value to an analog form (e.g., a voltage).

Cellan
• A LUT may be applied to transform image contrast at more than one point in the
chain from image acquisition to image display.

• For example, a digital radiography system may use a LUT to modify the acquired
pixel values, which are proportional to the detected x-ray signals, to cause the
display of contrast to resemble that of a film.

• Similarly, a medical grade image display system may employ a LUT to modify each
pixel value before it is sent to the DAC and becomes an analog signal; this is
commonly done to compensate for the different display functions of individual
display monitors and is described below in this chapter.

36
 FIGURE 5-13 Graphs of five digital lookup tables (LUT), for the same 14 bit
digital image and corresponding “window” and “level” settings

Cellan
• From left to right, the first is a linear LUT that preserves the way the image was
originally acquired. Typically, the useful image data occupies only a small range of
values for this 14 bit image, and thus contrast is low.

• The second is the “default modality LUT” that is assigned by the modality, based upon
an optimized grayscale range. Note that a large fraction of the range of the image is set
to zero (dark) or largest output (maximal brightness), and that a small range of values
is mapped from the dark to the bright values on the display.

• The third is the “Value of Interest” LUT (VOILUT), which encompasses the full range
of input values and maps the output according to the capabilities of the display.
Typically, this LUT is a sigmoidally-shaped curve, which softens the appearance of the
image in the dark and bright regions.
• The fourth LUT inverts image contrast. Shown here is the inverted second
image.

• The fifth image demonstrates windowing to enhance contrast in

underpenetrated parts of the image by increasing the slope of the LUT. Note
that this causes the loss of all contrast in the highly penetrated regions of the
lung.

Cellan
• Windowing and Leveling - is a common method for contrast enhancement. It permits
the viewer to use the entire range of display intensities to display just a portion of the
total range of pixel values.

• Most display workstations have level and window controls. The level control
determines the midpoint of the pixel values to be displayed and the window control
determines the range of pixel values about the level to be displayed.

• For example, an image may have a minimal pixel value of 0 and a maximum of 200. If
the user wishes to enhance contrast differences in the brighter portions of the image, a
window from 100 to 200 might be selected. Then, pixels with values from 0 to 100 are
displayed at the darkest intensity and so will not be visible on the monitor. Pixels with
values of 200 will be displayed at the maximal brightness, and the pixels with values
between 100 and 200 will be assigned intensities determined by the current LUT.
Figure 5-13 (rightmost image) illustrates windowing

Cellan
• Some nuclear medicine workstations require the user to select the lower level
(pixel value below which all pixels are displayed at the darkest intensity) and the
upper level (pixel value above which all pixel values are set to the brightest
intensity):

Lower level = Level - Window/2

Upper level = Level + Window/2

Cellan
• Windowing and leveling can be performed with a LUT or, equivalently, by
calculation; if calculated, it is accomplished by subtraction of a number from each
pixel, followed by multiplication by another number.

• If calculated, each pixel value equal to or below the lower level is set to zero and each
equal to or above the upper level is set to the maximal pixel value possible. For each
pixel whose value is between the lower and upper level, the windowed pixel value is
calculated as

Pij’ = (Pij − Lower level) (maximal allowed pixel value/window)

where Pij is a pixel value before windowing, Pij’ is the pixel value after windowing,
“maximal pixel value” is the largest possible pixel value, and window = upper level −
lower level.
 LUMINANCE CALIBRATION OF
DISPLAY SYSTEMS
• Display Function of a display monitor describes the luminance produced as a function
of the magnitude of the digital (sometimes called a “digital driving level”) or analog
signal sent to the monitor.

• The display function of a monitor can greatly affect the perceived contrast of the
displayed image. The inherent display function of a monitor is nonlinear (increasing the
input signal does not, in general, cause a proportional increase in the luminance), varies
from monitor to monitor, and also changes with time.

• Furthermore, individual display monitors differ in maximal and minimal luminance.

Clarke
• A display monitor has controls labeled “brightness” and “contrast” that are
used to adjust the shape of the display function. On most monitors used for
medical image interpretation, they are not available to the user.

• After acquisition of digital images by an imaging device, the pixel values

may be adjusted automatically by the device’s computer so that the displayed
images have an appearance acceptable to radiologists (black curve in Figure
5-14)

Clarke
 FIGURE 5-14 shows a display function of an LCD monitor (white curve).
Clarke
• For example, digital radiography systems, including digital mammography systems,
modify the pixel values to give the images appearances similar to screen-film
radiographs. Other processing may be performed, such as the automatic contrast
equalization processing of some digital mammography systems (Chapter 8), to
increase the conspicuity of structures of interest and to reduce the need for the
interpreting physician to window and level the images.

• When these images are sent to a workstation for viewing, unless the display
functions of the display devices were known to the designer of the imaging device,
the images’ contrast intended by the imaging device designer may not be achieved.
Also, the images’ appearance may also be modified by a technologist using a review
workstation prior to transfer to the PACS.

Clarke
• If the display system of the review workstation has a display function significantly
different from that of the interpretation workstation, the interpreting physician
may see contrast displayed quite differently than the technologist intended.

• Furthermore, if the monitors on display stations have different display functions,

an image may have a different appearance on different display monitors, even
when more than one monitor is attached to a single workstation.

Clarke
Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) Grayscale Standard
Display Function (GSDF) §
 was created to standardize the display of image contrast.
 pertains to grayscale (monochrome) images, whether displayed on monitors or printed
onto paper or onto film for viewing on a light box.

The goals of the DICOM GSDF are to:

1. Provide applications with a predictable transformation of digital pixel values (called
“presentation values,” abbreviated as “P-values”) to luminance
2. Insofar as possible, provide a similar display of contrast on display monitors and
printed media
3. Insofar as possible, provide perceptual linearization, that is, equal differences in the
pixel values received by the display system should be perceived as equal by the human
visual system
Clarke
• The LUT contains an output pixel value for each possible pixel value in an
image. In the DICOM standards, the input pixel values provided to the
LUT are called “presentation values,” as shown in Figure 5-15, and the
output values of the LUT that are provided to the display system are called
“digital driving levels.”

• Thus, by using a LUT for each monitor, the net display function (monitor
and LUT) will conform to the DICOM GSDF.

Clarke
■ FIGURE 5-15 This diagram shows the use of a lookup table (LUT), labeled “P-values to
DDLs,” with each display system, such as a display monitor, so that the net display function,
provided by the LUT and display device, will conform to the DICOM Grayscale Standard
Display Function (GSDF).

Clarke
JND Index -“JND” is an acronym for “just-noticeable difference,” it is the input value to
the GSDF, such that one step in JND Index results in a Luminance difference that is a
Just-Noticeable Difference.

• Only a portion of the DICOM GSDF curve, that lies between the minimal and
maximal calibrated luminances of a monitor, is used as the display function for that
monitor.

• For example, as shown in Figure 5-16, if the minimal and maximal calibrated
luminance of a display monitor are 2 and 250 cd/m2, the portion of the DICOM GSDF
contained in the segment encompassing 2 and 250 cd/m2 is used as the display
function.

Clarke
■ FIGURE 5-16 The DICOM Grayscale Standard Display Function.

Clarke
• The presentation values p, from 0 to the maximal possible presentation value
(typically 2N − 1, where N is the number of bits used for a presentation value), are
linearly related to the values of JND index j for that segment:

j = jmin + p (jmax – jmin )/pmax

where jmin is the smallest JND index in the rectangle, jmax is the largest JND index in the
rectangle, and pmax is the maximum possible presentation value.
• Thus, a presentation value of 0 is assigned the lowest luminance of the monitor,
which is the lowest luminance in the part of the GSDF within the segment.

• The maximum possible presentation value pmax is assigned the maximal calibrated
luminance of the monitor, which is the maximal luminance in the segment.

• Each intermediate presentation value p is assigned the luminance on the GSDF

corresponding to the JND index j determined from the equation above.

• The calibration of a display monitor to the DICOM GSDF is usually performed

automatically by the workstation itself, using specialized software and a calibrated
photometer that sends a digital luminance signal to the workstation.

Clarke
Photometer
 by using this, a display monitor can be calibrated so its corrected display
function conforms to the DICOM GSDF.

 measures the luminance at the center of the monitor as a program varies the
digital driving levels that control the luminance of pixels in a square area at
the center of the monitor.

 the photometer is aimed at a single point on the face of the monitor. The
software, starting with a digital driving level of zero, increases the digital
driving levels provided to the display system in a stepwise fashion and the
photometer sends to the software the measured luminance for each step,
thereby measuring the display function of the display system.

Casil
■ FIGURE 5-17

Casil
• The software then calculates the values to be placed in the LUT that
will cause the LUT and display system, acting together, to conform to
the DICOM GSDF. Some display monitors are equipped with
photometers and can automatically assess monitor luminance and
GSDF calibration.

Casil
Casil
FALSE COLOR DISPLAY
• radiographic images do not inherently have the property of color. When
color is used to display them, they are called false color images.
• Common uses of false color displays include nuclear medicine, in which
color is often used to enhance the perception of contrast, and ultrasound,
in which color is used to superimpose flow information on images
displaying anatomic information.
Casil
PERFORMANCE OF DIAGNOSTIC MONITORS
VERSUS THAT CONSUMER-GRADE MONITORS

1. Much higher maximal luminance

2. More uniform luminance
3. Smaller pixels, providing higher spatial resolution
4. Wider viewing angles, due to different LCD technology
5. More than 8 bits for digital driving levels (grayscale monitors) or more than 8 bits each
for the digital driving levels for red, green, and blue (color monitors), to display subtle
contrast differences

Casil
6. Automatic luminance stabilization circuits to compensate for changing backlight
intensity
7. Hardware and software for implementing the DICOM GSDF
8. Ability to monitor display monitor luminance and GSDF calibration over a network

Casil
 CAMERAS TO RECORD DIGITAL IMAGES
ON FILM
• Despite the increasing capability to transfer and view medical images without the
use of photographic film, there are still situations in which digital images must be
recorded on film.
• Today, images are commonly recorded on film by multiformat laser cameras, also
known as laser imagers.
• The images are usually sent to the device by a computer network. These devices
usually provide several formats.
• A laser camera typically contains a microprocessor; an image memory; an analog-to-
digital converter; a laser with a modulator to vary the intensity of the beam; a rotating
polygonal mirror to scan the laser beam across the film; and a film-transport mechanism
to move the film in a linear fashion so the scanning covers the entire film.
• Each sweep of the laser beam across the film records a single row of pixel values.
• The lasers in most laser cameras emit red or infrared light, requiring the use of red- or
infrared-sensitive film.
• Care must be taken not to handle this film under the normal red darkroom safelight.

Casil
 END OF
PRESENTATION

CASIL * CELLAN * CLARKE * CUICO * VILLANUEVA

THANK YOU
AND
GOD BLESS
CASIL CELLAN CLARKE CUICO VILLANUEVA
REPORTERS